Nepetalactol oxidoreductases, nepetalactol synthases, and microbes capable of producing nepetalactone

ABSTRACT

The present disclosure provides isolated nepetalactone oxidoreductase polypeptides (NORs), nepetalactol synthases (NEPSs), and related polynucleotides, engineered host cells, and cultures, as well as methods for producing NORs and NEPSs, and for using them to produce nepetalactol, nepetalactone, and dihydronepetalactone. The present disclosure also provides methods for engineering cells (e.g., microbial cells) to produce nepetalactone from a fermentation substrate such as glucose, as well as engineered cells having this capability and related cultures and methods for producing nepetalactone.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. non-provisional application Ser. No. 16/534,981, filed Aug. 7, 2019, which is a continuation of PCT International application no. PCT/US2018/067333, filed on Dec. 21, 2018, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application No. 62/609,272, filed Dec. 21, 2017, U.S. provisional application No. 62/609,279, filed Dec. 21, 2017, and U.S. provisional application No. 62/669,919, filed May 10, 2018, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE OF THE SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted electronically in ASCII format and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on May 29, 2020, is named ZMGNP012C2US_SL.txt and is 5,630,655 bytes in size.

FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE

The present disclosure relates generally to the area of production of nepetalactone. In particular, the disclosure relates to newly discovered genes encoding nepetalactol oxidoreductases (NORs), which catalyze the oxidation of nepetalactol to nepetalactone, and nepetalactol synthases (NEPSs), which catalyze the cyclization of 8-oxocitronellyl enolate into nepetalactol, where the enolate is the product resulting from the reduction of 8-oxogeranial, which is catalyzed by iridoid synthases (ISYs). The disclosure also relates to the heterologous expression of a biosynthetic pathway found in plants to produce microbes capable of synthesizing nepetalactone, as well as related compositions and methods.

BACKGROUND

Nepetalactone is an effective active ingredient for insect repellents. Current ingredients used for insect repellence such as N, N-Diethyl-meta-toluamide (DEET) pose health concerns, while other natural alternatives only offer short-term protection. Nepetalactone is derived primarily from the plant Nepeta cataria, but is produced at low levels. Yields are subject to environmental factors, such as climate and pests, creating an unreliable supply for broad use beyond acting as a cat attractant. Chemical synthesis is feasible, but not economical.

An approach to creating a more dependable supply of nepetalactone is to genetically engineer a microbial host for production of this chemical from glucose or to express one or more of the necessary enzymes, either in cell culture or in a cell-free protein expression system, which can be employed in a chemoenzymatic process for producing nepetalactone. A number of biochemical steps and the corresponding genetic elements have already been characterized to indirectly demonstrate the production of the nepetalactone precursor nepetalactol as an intermediate to a different natural product, strictosidine, in a microbial host. However, prior to the present work, the full pathway has not been recapitulated in any microorganism, and no efficient chemoenzymatic process for nepetalactone production from a precursor has been described.

SUMMARY

One approach to creating a more dependable supply of nepetalactone is to genetically engineer a microbial host for production of this chemical. A number of biochemical steps and the corresponding genetic elements have already been characterized to indirectly demonstrate the production of the nepetalactone precursor nepetalactol as an intermediate to a different natural product, strictosidine, in a microbial host. However, prior to the present work, the enzymes, nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) remained uncharacterized, preventing complete biosynthesis of nepetalactone in any heterologous organism.

Various embodiments contemplated herein may include, but need not be limited to, one or more of the following:

Embodiment 1: An engineered cell, wherein the engineered cell expresses a non-native polypeptide, the non-native polypeptide having an activity selected from the group consisting of: a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), or any combination thereof.

Embodiment 2: An engineered microbial cell, wherein the engineered microbial cell is capable of producing nepetalactone.

Embodiment 3: The engineered microbial cell of embodiments 1-2, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses a non-native polypeptide having an activity selected from the group consisting of: a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), or any combination thereof.

Embodiment 4: The engineered microbial cell of embodiments 1-3, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses non-native polypeptide(s) having an activity comprising an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR), and a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).

Embodiment 5: The engineered microbial cell of embodiments 1-4, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses at least one, two, three, or more non-native enzymes selected from the group consisting of: a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).

Embodiment 6: The engineered microbial cell of embodiments 1, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses at least one non-native form of each of the enzymes of embodiment 1.

Embodiment 7: An engineered microbial cell, wherein the engineered microbial cell includes means for producing nepetalactone.

Embodiment 8: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 1, wherein the engineered microbial cell includes means for expressing at least one, two, three, or more non-native enzymes selected from the group consisting of: a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); and a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NEPS).

Embodiment 9: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 8, wherein the engineered microbial cell includes means for expressing at least one non-native form of each of the enzymes of embodiment 8.

Embodiment 10: The engineered microbial cell of any one of embodiments 1-9, wherein the microbial cell includes a fungal cell.

Embodiment 11: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 10, wherein the microbial cell includes a yeast cell.

Embodiment 12: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 11, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus Yarrowia.

Embodiment 13: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 12, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the species lipolytica.

Embodiment 14: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 11, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus Saccharomyces.

Embodiment 15: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 14, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the species cerevisiae.

Embodiment 16: The engineered microbial cell of any one of embodiments 1-15, wherein, when cultured, the engineered microbial cell produces nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 17: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 16, wherein, when cultured, the engineered microbial cell produces nepetalactone at a level greater than 50 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 18: An expression construct including a nucleotide sequence that encodes an active enzyme, wherein the active enzyme has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence encoded by nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NOs:789-927, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); SEQ ID NOs:928-1037, wherein the active enzyme is a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); SEQ ID NOs:1038-1072, 1088-1110, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); SEQ ID NOs:1073-1087, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; SEQ ID NOs:1111-1117, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156, wherein the active enzyme is an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); SEQ ID NOs:1157-1307, 1778-1807, wherein the active enzyme is an iridoid synthase (ISY); SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727, wherein the active enzyme is a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); SEQ ID NOs:1571-1576, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562, wherein the active enzyme is a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS); SEQ ID NOs:1396-1397, 1728-1777, wherein the active enzyme is a GPPS-GES fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1398-1462, wherein the active enzyme is a G8H-CPR fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1463-1481, wherein the active enzyme is a G8H-CPR-CYB5 fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1482-1493, wherein the active enzyme is a 8HGO-ISY fusion; or SEQ ID NOs:1494-1505, wherein the active enzyme is a ISY-NEPS fusion; wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1577-1633 or a terminator sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1634-1641.

Embodiment 19: An expression construct including a nucleotide sequence that encodes an active enzyme, wherein the nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NOs:789-927, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); SEQ ID NOs:928-1037, wherein the active enzyme is a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); SEQ ID NOs:1038-1072, 1088-1110, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); SEQ ID NOs:1073-1087, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; SEQ ID NOs:1111-1117, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156, wherein the active enzyme is an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); SEQ ID NOs:1157-1307, 1778-1807, wherein the active enzyme is an iridoid synthase (ISY); or SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727, wherein the active enzyme is a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); SEQ ID NOs:1571-1576, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562, wherein the active enzyme is a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS); SEQ ID NOs:1396-1397, 1728-1777, wherein the active enzyme is a GPPS-GES fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1398-1462, wherein the active enzyme is a G8H-CPR fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1463-1481, wherein the active enzyme is a G8H-CPR-CYB5 fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1482-1493, wherein the active enzyme is a 8HGO-ISY fusion; or SEQ ID NOs:1494-1505, wherein the active enzyme is a ISY-NEPS fusion; wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1577-1633 or a terminator sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1634-1641.

Embodiment 20: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to the promoter sequence and the terminator sequence.

Embodiment 21: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:789-927, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS).

Embodiment 22: The expression construct of embodiment 21, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:789-927.

Embodiment 23: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:928-1037, wherein the active enzyme is a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES).

Embodiment 24: The expression construct of embodiment 23, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:928-1037.

Embodiment 25: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 1038-1072, 1088-1110, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H).

Embodiment 26: The expression construct of embodiment 25, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1038-1072, 1088-1110.

Embodiment 27: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1073-1087, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H.

Embodiment 28: The expression construct of embodiment 27, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1073-1087.

Embodiment 29: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1111-1117, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H.

Embodiment 30: The expression construct of embodiment 29, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1111-1117.

Embodiment 31: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156, wherein the active enzyme is an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO).

Embodiment 32: The expression construct of embodiment 31, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156.

Embodiment 33: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1157-1307, 1778-1807, wherein the active enzyme is an iridoid synthase (ISY).

Embodiment 34: The expression construct of embodiment 33, wherein the iridoid synthase (ISY) has been modified to improve substrate specificity.

Embodiment 35: The expression construct of embodiment 34, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1157-1307, 1778-1807.

Embodiment 36: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727, wherein the active enzyme is a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR).

Embodiment 37: The expression construct of embodiment 36, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727.

Embodiment 38: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1120).

Embodiment 39: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1121).

Embodiment 40: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1122).

Embodiment 41: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1123).

Embodiment 42: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1124).

Embodiment 43: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1125).

Embodiment 44: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1126).

Embodiment 45: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1127).

Embodiment 46: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1128).

Embodiment 47: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1129).

Embodiment 48: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1130).

Embodiment 49: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1131).

Embodiment 50: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1075).

Embodiment 51: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1077).

Embodiment 52: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1041).

Embodiment 53: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1054).

Embodiment 54: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1056).

Embodiment 55: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1063).

Embodiment 56: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1067).

Embodiment 57: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1417).

Embodiment 58: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:930).

Embodiment 59: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:931).

Embodiment 60: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:932).

Embodiment 61: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:934).

Embodiment 62: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:937).

Embodiment 63: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:938).

Embodiment 64: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1396).

Embodiment 65: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:791).

Embodiment 66: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:793).

Embodiment 67: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:897).

Embodiment 68: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:898).

Embodiment 69: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:900).

Embodiment 70: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:901).

Embodiment 71: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:914).

Embodiment 72: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:915).

Embodiment 73: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:916).

Embodiment 74: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:917).

Embodiment 75: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:918).

Embodiment 76: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:919).

Embodiment 77: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1163).

Embodiment 78: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1169).

Embodiment 79: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1170).

Embodiment 80: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1171).

Embodiment 81: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1172).

Embodiment 82: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1173).

Embodiment 83: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1174).

Embodiment 84: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1175).

Embodiment 85: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1176).

Embodiment 86: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1177).

Embodiment 87: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1506).

Embodiment 88: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1507).

Embodiment 89: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1508).

Embodiment 90: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1509).

Embodiment 91: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1510).

Embodiment 92: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1511).

Embodiment 93: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1512).

Embodiment 94: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1513).

Embodiment 95: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1514).

Embodiment 96: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1515).

Embodiment 97: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1516).

Embodiment 98: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1517).

Embodiment 99: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1518).

Embodiment 100: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1519).

Embodiment 101: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1520).

Embodiment 102: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1521).

Embodiment 103: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1114).

Embodiment 104: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1115).

Embodiment 105: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1086).

Embodiment 106: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1308).

Embodiment 107: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1309).

Embodiment 108: The expression construct of embodiment 18 or embodiment 19, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is (SEQ ID NO:1393).

Embodiment 109: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1577).

Embodiment 110: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1578).

Embodiment 111: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1579).

Embodiment 112: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1580).

Embodiment 113: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1581).

Embodiment 114: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1582).

Embodiment 115: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1583).

Embodiment 116: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1584).

Embodiment 117: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1585).

Embodiment 118: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1586).

Embodiment 119: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1587).

Embodiment 120: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1588).

Embodiment 121: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1589).

Embodiment 122: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1590).

Embodiment 123: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1591).

Embodiment 124: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1592).

Embodiment 125: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1593).

Embodiment 126: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1594).

Embodiment 127: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1595).

Embodiment 128: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1596).

Embodiment 129: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1597).

Embodiment 130: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1598).

Embodiment 131: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1599).

Embodiment 132: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1600).

Embodiment 133: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1601).

Embodiment 134: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1602).

Embodiment 135: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1603).

Embodiment 136: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1604).

Embodiment 137: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1605).

Embodiment 138: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1606).

Embodiment 139: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1607).

Embodiment 140: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1608).

Embodiment 141: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1609).

Embodiment 142: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1610).

Embodiment 143: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1611).

Embodiment 144: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1612).

Embodiment 145: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1613).

Embodiment 146: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1614).

Embodiment 147: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1615).

Embodiment 148: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1616).

Embodiment 149: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1617).

Embodiment 150: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1618).

Embodiment 151: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1619).

Embodiment 152: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1620).

Embodiment 153: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1621).

Embodiment 154: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1622).

Embodiment 155: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1623).

Embodiment 156: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1624).

Embodiment 157: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1625).

Embodiment 158: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1626).

Embodiment 159: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1627).

Embodiment 160: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1628).

Embodiment 161: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1629).

Embodiment 162: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1630).

Embodiment 163: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1631).

Embodiment 164: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1632).

Embodiment 165: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-108, wherein the selected nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1633).

Embodiment 166: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1634).

Embodiment 167: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1635).

Embodiment 168: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1636).

Embodiment 169: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1637).

Embodiment 170: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1638).

Embodiment 171: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1639).

Embodiment 172: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1640).

Embodiment 173: The expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-165, wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a terminator sequence including (SEQ ID NO:1641).

Embodiment 174: A centromeric or episomal plasmid including the expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-173.

Embodiment 175: An engineered microbial cell including the expression construct of any one of embodiments 18-173.

Embodiment 176: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 175, wherein the engineered microbial cell is capable of producing nepetalactone.

Embodiment 177: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 176, wherein the engineered microbial cell includes a yeast cell.

Embodiment 178: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 177, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus Yarrowia.

Embodiment 179: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 178, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the species lipolytica.

Embodiment 180: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 177, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus Saccharomyces.

Embodiment 181: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 180, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the species cerevisiae.

Embodiment 182: The engineered microbial cell of any one of embodiments 176-181, wherein, when cultured, the engineered microbial cell produces nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 183: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 176-181, wherein, when cultured, the engineered microbial cell produces nepetalactone at a level greater than 50 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 184: A culture of engineered microbial cells according to any one of embodiments 1-17 or 175-183.

Embodiment 185: The culture of embodiment 184, wherein the substrate includes a carbon source and a nitrogen source selected from the group consisting of urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 186: The culture of embodiment 184, wherein the substrate includes a carbon source selected from the group consisting of geraniol and 8-hydroxygeraniol, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 187: The culture of any one of embodiments 184-186, wherein the engineered microbial cells are present in a concentration such that the culture has an optical density at 600 nm of 1-500, optionally wherein the optical density is measured without concentrating cells.

Embodiment 188: The culture of any one of embodiments 184-187, wherein the culture includes nepetalactone.

Embodiment 189: The culture of any one of embodiments 184-188, wherein the culture includes nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 190: The culture of any one of embodiments 184-188, wherein the culture includes nepetalactone at a level greater than 50 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 191: A method of culturing engineered microbial cells according to any one of embodiments 1-17 or 175-183, the method including culturing the engineered microbial cells under suitable conditions, wherein the engineered microbial cells produce nepetalactone.

Embodiment 192: The method of embodiment 191, wherein the method includes culturing the cells in the presence of a fermentation substrate including a non-protein carbon and a non-protein nitrogen source.

Embodiment 193: The method of embodiment 191, wherein the method includes culturing the cells in the presence of a fermentation substrate including geraniol and/or 8-hydroxygeraniol.

Embodiment 194: The method of embodiment 191, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial glucose level in the range of 1-100 g/L, followed by controlled sugar feeding.

Embodiment 195: The method of embodiment 191, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial geraniol level in the range of 0.1-100 g/L.

Embodiment 196: The method of embodiment 191, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial 8-hydroxygeraniol level in the range of 0.1-100 g/L.

Embodiment 197: The method of embodiment 191 or embodiment 194, wherein the fermentation substrate includes glucose and a nitrogen source selected from the group consisting of urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 198: The method of any one of embodiments 191-197, wherein the culture is pH-controlled during culturing.

Embodiment 199: The method of any one of embodiments 191-198, wherein the culture is aerated during culturing.

Embodiment 200: The method of any one of embodiments 191-199, wherein the engineered microbial cells produce nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 201: The method of embodiment 200, wherein the engineered microbial cells produce nepetalactone at a level greater than 50 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 202: The method of any one of embodiments 191-201, wherein the method additionally includes recovering nepetalactone from the culture.

Embodiment 203: The method of embodiment 202, wherein the method additionally includes converting nepetalactone to dihydronepetalactone.

Embodiment 204: The method of embodiment 203, wherein nepetalactone is converted to dihydronepetalactone by contacting nepetalactone with hydrogen and a hydrogenation catalyst.

Embodiment 205: An engineered non-plant cell, wherein the engineered non-plant cell expresses one or more non-native enzyme selected from the group consisting of: a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), or any combination thereof.

Embodiment 206: An engineered non-plant cell, wherein the engineered non-plant cell expresses a non-native nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR).

Embodiment 207: An engineered non-plant cell, wherein the engineered non-plant cell includes means for expressing a non-native enzyme selected from the group consisting of: a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), or any combination thereof.

Embodiment 208: An engineered non-plant cell, wherein the engineered non-plant cell includes means for expressing a non-native nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR).

Embodiment 209: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiments 205-208, wherein the engineered non-plant cell is capable of producing nepetalactol.

Embodiment 210: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiments 205-209, wherein the engineered non-plant cell has been engineered to produce nepetalactol.

Embodiment 211: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 208, wherein the engineered non-plant cell further expresses: a non-native geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase (GES)); geraniol 8-hydroxylase; 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase; and iridoid synthase (ISY).

Embodiment 212: The engineered non-plant cell of any one of embodiments 205-211, wherein the engineered non-plant cell includes a microbial cell.

Embodiment 213: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 212, wherein the microbial cell includes a bacterial cell.

Embodiment 214: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 213, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus Escherichia or Corynebacterium.

Embodiment 215: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 214, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the species E. coli or C. glutamicum.

Embodiment 216: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 212, wherein the microbial cell includes a fungal cell.

Embodiment 217: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 216, wherein the microbial cell includes a yeast cell.

Embodiment 218: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 217, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus Saccharomyces or Yarrowia.

Embodiment 219: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 218, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the species S. cerevisiae or Y. lipolytica.

Embodiment 220: The engineered non-plant cell of any one of embodiments 205-219, wherein, when cultured, the engineered non-plant cell produces sufficient nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) to convert nepetalactol to nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 221: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 220, wherein, when cultured, the engineered non-plant cell produces sufficient nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) to convert nepetalactol to nepetalactone at a level greater than 50 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 222: A culture of engineered non-plant cells according to any one of embodiments 205-221.

Embodiment 223: The culture of embodiment 222, wherein the engineered non-plant cells are present in a concentration such that the culture has an optical density at 600 nm of 1-500, optionally wherein the optical density is measured without concentrating cells.

Embodiment 224: The culture of any one of embodiments 222-223, wherein the culture includes nepetalactone.

Embodiment 225: The culture of any one of embodiments 222-224, wherein the culture includes nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of culture medium.

Embodiment 226: The culture of embodiment 225, wherein the culture includes nepetalactone at a level greater than 50 μM of culture medium.

Embodiment 227: A method of culturing engineered non-plant cells according to any one of embodiments 205-221, the method including culturing the cells under suitable conditions, whereby the engineered non-plant cells express the non-native nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR).

Embodiment 228: A method of culturing engineered non-plant cells according to any one of embodiments 205-221, the method including culturing the cells under suitable conditions, whereby the engineered non-plant cells produce nepetalactone.

Embodiment 229: The method of embodiments 227-228, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial glucose level in the range of 1-100 g/L, followed by controlled sugar feeding.

Embodiment 230: The method of embodiment 229, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial geraniol level in the range of 0.1-100 g/L.

Embodiment 231: The method of embodiment 229, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial 8-hydroxygeraniol level in the range of 0.1-100 g/L.

Embodiment 232: The method of embodiments 227-228, wherein the fermentation substrate includes glucose and a nitrogen source selected from the group consisting of urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 233: The method of any one of embodiments 227-232, wherein the culture is pH-controlled during culturing.

Embodiment 234: The method of any one of embodiments 227-233, wherein the culture is aerated during culturing.

Embodiment 235: The method of any one of embodiments 227-234, wherein the engineered non-plant cells produce sufficient nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) to convert nepetalactol to nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 236: The method of embodiment 235, wherein the engineered non-plant cells produce sufficient nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) to convert nepetalactol to nepetalactone at a level greater than 50 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.

Embodiment 237: The method of any one of embodiments 227-236, wherein the method additionally includes recovering nepetalactone from the culture.

Embodiment 238: A polynucleotide including a nucleotide sequence that encodes an active nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) including an amino acid sequence that has: at least 70% sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Embodiment 239: A polynucleotide including a nucleotide sequence that encodes an active nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) including an amino acid sequence that has: more than 90% sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Embodiment 240: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 238-239, wherein the encoded nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) has at least 95% sequence identity with one of SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Embodiment 241: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 238-239, wherein the polynucleotide includes a nucleotide sequence including one or more nucleotide substitutions relative to a nucleotide sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727.

Embodiment 242: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 238-239, wherein the polynucleotide includes a chimeric polynucleotide.

Embodiment 243: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 238-242, wherein the polynucleotide has a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% sequence identity with one of SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727.

Embodiment 244: An expression vector including the polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 238-243.

Embodiment 245: An engineered non-plant cell including the expression vector of embodiment 244.

Embodiment 246: The engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 245, wherein the engineered non-plant cell is an engineered microbial cell.

Embodiment 247: A method of producing a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR), wherein the method includes: culturing the engineered non-plant cell of any one of embodiments 205, 212, 245 or 246 under conditions suitable for expressing the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); or expressing the polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 238-243 in a cell-free protein synthesis system.

Embodiment 248: An isolated nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide including an amino acid sequence that has: at least 70% sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Embodiment 249: An isolated nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide including an amino acid sequence that has: more than 90% sequence identity with any one of SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Embodiment 250: The isolated nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide of embodiment 249, wherein the polypeptide includes an amino acid sequence including one or more amino acid substitutions relative to an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs: 520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Embodiment 251: The isolated nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide of embodiment 34, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide has an amino acid sequence with at least 95% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs: 520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Embodiment 252: A method of oxidizing nepetalactol to nepetalactone, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) expressed by the engineered non-plant cell of any one of embodiments 205, 212, 245 or 246 or the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide of any one of embodiments 248-251 is contacted with nepetalactol in the presence of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+).

Embodiment 253: The method of embodiment 252, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) contacted with nepetalactol is expressed by the engineered non-plant cell of any one of embodiments 205, 212, 245 or 246.

Embodiment 254: The method of embodiment 253, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) contacted with nepetalactol is expressed by the engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 205 or embodiment 245.

Embodiment 255: The method of embodiment 252, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) contacted with nepetalactol is expressed by the engineered non-plant cell of embodiment 212 or embodiment 246.

Embodiment 256: The method of any one of embodiments 253-255, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) oxidizes nepetalactol to nepetalactone intracellularly.

Embodiment 257: The method of any one of embodiments 253-255, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) oxidizes nepetalactol to nepetalactone in a cell culture medium.

Embodiment 258: The method of any one of embodiments 253-255, wherein the method includes purifying the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) to produce an enzyme preparation, and adding NAD+ or NADP+ and nepetalactol to the enzyme preparation, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide oxidizes nepetalactol to nepetalactone in vitro.

Embodiment 259: The method of embodiment 252, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) contacted with nepetalactol is the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide of any one of embodiments 248-251, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide oxidizes nepetalactol to nepetalactone in vitro.

Embodiment 260: The method of embodiment 259, wherein the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide is produced in a cell-free protein synthesis system.

Embodiment 261: The method of embodiment 260, wherein the method includes purifying the nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) polypeptide to produce an enzyme preparation and adding NAD+ or NADP+ and nepetalactol to the enzyme preparation.

Embodiment 262: The method of any of embodiments 252-261, wherein the method additionally includes converting nepetalactone to dihydronepetalactone.

Embodiment 263: The method of embodiment 262, wherein nepetalactone is converted to dihydronepetalactone by contacting nepetalactone with hydrogen and a hydrogenation catalyst.

Embodiment 264: An engineered non-plant cell, wherein the engineered non-plant cell is capable of producing (6E)-8-hydroxygeraniol and expresses a non-native nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR).

Embodiment 265: An engineered cell, wherein the engineered cell expresses a non-native nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).

Embodiment 266: An engineered cell, wherein the engineered cell includes means for expressing a non-native nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).

Embodiment 267: The engineered cell of embodiment 265 or embodiment 266, wherein the engineered cell is capable of producing nepetalactol.

Embodiment 268: The engineered cell of embodiment 267, wherein the engineered cell has been engineered to produce nepetalactol.

Embodiment 269: The engineered cell of any one of embodiments 265-268, wherein the engineered cell further expresses: 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase); and/or iridoid synthase.

Embodiment 270: The engineered cell of any one of embodiments 265-269, wherein the engineered cell further expresses: geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase); and geraniol 8-hydroxylase.

Embodiment 271: The engineered cell of any one of embodiments 265-270, wherein the engineered cell includes a microbial cell.

Embodiment 272: The engineered cell of embodiment 271, wherein the microbial cell includes a bacterial cell.

Embodiment 273: The engineered cell of embodiment 272, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus Escherichia or Corynebacterium.

Embodiment 274: The engineered cell of embodiment 273, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus and species E. coli or C. glutamicum.

Embodiment 275: The engineered cell of embodiment 271, wherein the engineered cell includes a fungal cell.

Embodiment 276: The engineered cell of embodiment 275, wherein the fungal cell includes a yeast cell.

Embodiment 277: The engineered cell of embodiment 276, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus Saccharomyces or Yarrowia.

Embodiment 278: The engineered cell of embodiment 277, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus and species S. cerevisiae or Y. lipolytica.

Embodiment 279: A culture of engineered cells according to any one of embodiments 265-278.

Embodiment 280: The culture of embodiment 279, wherein the engineered cells are present in a concentration such that the culture has an optical density at 600 nm of 1-500, optionally wherein the optical density is measured without concentrating cells.

Embodiment 281: The culture of embodiment 279 or embodiment 280, wherein the culture includes nepetalactol.

Embodiment 282: The culture of embodiment 281, wherein the nepetalactol includes (4αS,7S,7αR)-nepetalactol, and the culture does not comprise any other stereoisomer of nepetalactol that is detectable by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Embodiment 283: A method of culturing engineered cells according to any one of embodiments 265-278, the method including culturing the cells under suitable conditions, whereby the engineered cells produce nepetalactol.

Embodiment 284: The method of embodiment 283, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial sugar level in the range of 1-100 g/L, followed by controlled sugar feeding.

Embodiment 285: The method of embodiment 283 or embodiment 284, wherein the fermentation substrate includes sugar and a nitrogen source selected from the group consisting of urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 286: The method of any one of embodiments 283-285, wherein the culture is pH-controlled during culturing.

Embodiment 287: The method of any one of embodiments 283-286, wherein the culture is aerated during culturing.

Embodiment 288: A polynucleotide including a nucleotide sequence that encodes an active nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) including an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:718-774.

Embodiment 289: The polynucleotide of embodiment 288, wherein the encoded nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) has at least 95% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:718-774.

Embodiment 290: The polynucleotide of embodiment 288 or embodiment 289, wherein the polynucleotide includes a nucleotide sequence including one or more nucleotide substitutions relative to a nucleotide sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562.

Embodiment 291: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 288-290, wherein the polynucleotide includes a chimeric polynucleotide.

Embodiment 292: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 289-291, wherein the polynucleotide includes a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% sequence identity with one of SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562.

Embodiment 293: An expression vector including the polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 288-292.

Embodiment 294: An engineered cell including the expression vector of embodiment 293.

Embodiment 295: The engineered cell of embodiment 294, wherein the engineered cell is an engineered microbial cell.

Embodiment 296: A method of producing a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), wherein the method includes: culturing the engineered cell of embodiment 294 or embodiment 295 under conditions suitable for expressing the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS); or expressing the polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 288-292 in a cell-free protein synthesis system.

Embodiment 297: An isolated nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) polypeptide including an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:718-774.

Embodiment 298: The isolated nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) polypeptide of embodiment 297, wherein the polypeptide includes an amino acid sequence including one or more amino acid substitutions relative to an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:718-774.

Embodiment 299: The isolated nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) polypeptide of embodiment 297, wherein the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) polypeptide has an amino acid sequence with at least 95% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NO:718-774.

Embodiment 300: An engineered cell, wherein the engineered cell expresses: a non-native 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8HGO), wherein the non-native 8HGO has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs:330-368; and/or a non-native iridoid synthase (ISY), wherein the non-native ISY has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 301: The engineered cell of embodiment 300, wherein the engineered cell expresses a non-native 8HGO, wherein the non-native 8HGO has an amino acid sequence that has at least 75% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from SEQ ID NOs:330-368.

Embodiment 302: The engineered cell of embodiment 300, wherein the engineered cell expresses a non-native ISY, wherein the non-native ISY has an amino acid sequence that has at least 75% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 303: The engineered cell of any one of embodiments 300-302, wherein the engineered cell is capable of producing nepetalactol.

Embodiment 304: The engineered cell of embodiment 303, wherein the engineered cell has been engineered to produce nepetalactol.

Embodiment 305: The engineered cell of any one of embodiments 300-304, wherein the engineered cell further expresses a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).

Embodiment 306: The engineered cell of any one of embodiments 300-304, wherein the engineered cell further expresses: geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase); and geraniol 8-hydroxylase.

Embodiment 307: The engineered cell of any one of embodiments 300-306, wherein the engineered cell includes a microbial cell.

Embodiment 308: The engineered cell of embodiment 307, wherein the microbial cell includes a bacterial cell.

Embodiment 309: The engineered cell of embodiment 308, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus Escherichia or Corynebacterium.

Embodiment 310: The engineered cell of embodiment 309, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus and species E. coli or C. glutamicum.

Embodiment 311: The engineered cell of embodiment 307, wherein the engineered cell includes a fungal cell.

Embodiment 312: The engineered cell of embodiment 311, wherein the fungal cell includes a yeast cell.

Embodiment 313: The engineered cell of embodiment 312, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus Saccharomyces or Yarrowia.

Embodiment 314: The engineered cell of embodiment 313, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus and species S. cerevisiae or Y. lipolytica.

Embodiment 315: A culture of engineered cells according to any one of embodiments 300-314.

Embodiment 316: The culture of embodiment 91, wherein the engineered cells are present in a concentration such that the culture has an optical density at 600 nm of 1-500, optionally wherein the optical density is measured without concentrating cells.

Embodiment 317: The culture of embodiment 315 or embodiment 316, wherein the culture includes nepetalactol.

Embodiment 318: The culture of embodiment 317, wherein the nepetalactol includes (4αS,7S,7αR)-nepetalactol, and the culture does not comprise any other stereoisomer of nepetalactol that is detectable by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Embodiment 319: A method of culturing engineered cells according to any one of embodiments 300-314, the method including culturing the cells under suitable conditions, whereby the engineered cells produce nepetalactol.

Embodiment 320: The method of embodiment 319, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial sugar level in the range of 1-100 g/L, followed by controlled sugar feeding.

Embodiment 321: The method of embodiment 319 or embodiment 320, wherein the fermentation substrate includes sugar and a nitrogen source selected from the group consisting of urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 322: The method of any one of embodiments 319-321, wherein the culture is pH-controlled during culturing.

Embodiment 323: The method of any one of embodiments 319-322, wherein the culture is aerated during culturing.

Embodiment 324: A polynucleotide including a nucleotide sequence that encodes: an active 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8HGO) including an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:330-368; or an active iridoid synthase (ISY) including an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 325: The polynucleotide of embodiment 324, wherein the nucleotide sequence encodes an active 8HGO including an amino acid sequence that has at least 75% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:330-368.

Embodiment 326: The polynucleotide of embodiment 324, wherein the nucleotide sequence encodes an active ISY including an amino acid sequence that has at least 75% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 327: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 324-326, wherein the sequence identity is at least 95%.

Embodiment 328: The polynucleotide of embodiment any one of embodiments 324-327, wherein the polynucleotide includes a nucleotide sequence including one or more nucleotide substitutions relative to a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1157-1307, 1778-1807.

Embodiment 329: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 324-328, wherein the polynucleotide includes a chimeric polynucleotide.

Embodiment 330: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 327-329, wherein the polynucleotide encodes an active 8HGO and includes a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156.

Embodiment 331: The polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 327-330, wherein the polynucleotide encodes an active ISY and includes a nucleotide sequence with at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 332: An expression vector including the polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 324-334.

Embodiment 333: An engineered cell including the expression vector of embodiment 332.

Embodiment 334: The engineered cell of embodiment 333, wherein the engineered cell is an engineered microbial cell.

Embodiment 335: A method of producing an enzyme, wherein the method includes: culturing the engineered cell of embodiment 333 or embodiment 334 under conditions suitable for expressing the enzyme; or expressing the polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 324-331 in a cell culture or in a cell-free protein synthesis system.

Embodiment 336: An isolated polypeptide, wherein the isolated polypeptide includes: an active 8HGO polypeptide including an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:330-368; or an active ISY polypeptide including an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 337: The isolated polypeptide of embodiment 336, wherein the isolated polypeptide includes an active 8HGO polypeptide including an amino acid sequence that has at least 75% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:330-368.

Embodiment 338: The isolated polypeptide of embodiment 336, wherein the isolated polypeptide includes an active ISY polypeptide including an amino acid sequence that has at least 75% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 339: The isolated polypeptide of any one of embodiments 336-338, wherein the sequence identity is at least 95%.

Embodiment 340: The isolated polypeptide of any one of embodiments 336-339, wherein the polypeptide includes an amino acid sequence including one or more amino acid substitutions relative to an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:330-368 (8HGO), 369-519, 1695-1724 (ISY).

Embodiment 341: The isolated polynucleotide of any one of embodiments 336-340, wherein the polypeptide includes a chimeric polynucleotide.

Embodiment 342: A method, wherein the method includes contacting an enzyme selected from the group consisting of: the 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8HGO) or iridoid synthase expressed by the engineered cell of any one of embodiments 300-314; and the isolated polypeptide of any one of embodiments 336-340; the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) expressed by the engineered cell of any one of embodiments 265-278; the isolated nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) polypeptide of any one of embodiments 297-299; with a substrate for the enzyme.

Embodiment 343: The method of embodiment 342, the 8HGO or iridoid synthase expressed by the engineered cell of any one of embodiments 300-314 or the isolated polypeptide of any one of embodiments 336-340 is contacted with the substrate, the substrate including 8-oxogeranial for 8HGO or 8-oxogeranial for iridoid synthase.

Embodiment 344: The method of embodiment 342 or embodiment 343, wherein said contacting is carried out in an in vitro reaction mixture.

Embodiment 345: The method of embodiment 344, wherein the enzyme is purified from a cell culture medium before contact with the substrate.

Embodiment 346: The method of embodiment 344, wherein the enzyme includes said isolated polypeptide of any one of embodiments 336-340, wherein the isolated polypeptide is expressed in a cell-free protein synthesis system.

Embodiment 347: The method of embodiment 346, wherein the enzyme is purified before contact with the substrate.

Embodiment 348: The method of embodiment 342, wherein the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) expressed by the engineered cell of any one of embodiments 265-278 or the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) polypeptide of any one of embodiments 297-299 is contacted with an enol produced from reduction of 8-oxogeranial.

Embodiment 349: The method of embodiment 348, wherein the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) is expressed by the engineered cell of any one of embodiments 265-278, or 294-295.

Embodiment 350: The method of embodiment 349, wherein the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) is expressed by the engineered cell of embodiment 265 or embodiment 294.

Embodiment 351: The method of embodiment 349, wherein the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) contacted with nepetalactol is expressed by the engineered cell of any one of embodiments 265-278, or 294-295.

Embodiment 352: The method of any one of embodiments 348-351, wherein the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) is contacted with an enol produced from reduction of 8-oxogeranial in an in vitro reaction mixture.

Embodiment 353: The method of embodiment 352, wherein the in vitro reaction mixture additionally includes an iridoid synthase and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+).

Embodiment 354: The method of embodiment 353, wherein the in vitro reaction mixture additionally includes an 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase).

Embodiment 355: The method of any one of embodiments 352-354 wherein the method includes purifying the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) and/or the iridoid synthase or the 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase, if present, from a cell culture medium to produce an enzyme preparation and combining the enzyme preparation with 8-hydroxygeraniol and NAD+ or NADP+ to produce the in vitro reaction mixture.

Embodiment 356: The method of any one of embodiments 352-354, wherein the method includes producing the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) and/or the iridoid synthase or the 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase, if present, in a cell-free protein synthesis system.

Embodiment 357: The method of embodiment 356, wherein the method includes purifying the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) and/or the iridoid synthase or the 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase, if present, to produce an enzyme preparation and combining the enzyme preparation with hydroxygeraniol and NAD+ or NADP+ to produce the in vitro reaction mixture.

Embodiment 358: The method of any one of embodiments 342-357, wherein the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) is the nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) polypeptide of any one of embodiments 297-299.

Embodiment 359: The method of any of embodiments 342-358, wherein the method produces nepetalactol.

Embodiment 360: The method of embodiment 359, wherein the nepetalactol includes (4αS,7S,7αR)-nepetalactol and does not comprise any other stereoisomer of nepetalactol that is detectable by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Embodiment 361: The method of embodiment 359, wherein the method additionally includes converting the nepetalactol to nepetalactone.

Embodiment 362: The method of embodiment 361, wherein the nepetalactol is converted to nepetalactone by contacting the nepetalactol with a nepetalactone oxidoreductase and NAD+ or NADP+.

Embodiment 363: The method of embodiment 361 or embodiment 362, wherein the method additionally includes converting nepetalactone to dihydronepetalactone.

Embodiment 364: The method of embodiment 363, wherein nepetalactone is converted to dihydronepetalactone by contacting nepetalactone with hydrogen and a hydrogenation catalyst.

Embodiment 365: An engineered cell or a reaction mixture, the engineered cell or reaction mixture including a set of active enzymes including: an active 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8HGO; 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase), wherein the active 8HGO has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:330-368; an active iridoid synthase (ISY), wherein the active ISY has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724; and an active nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), wherein the active NEPS has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:718-774.

Embodiment 366: An engineered cell or a reaction mixture, the engineered cell or reaction mixture including a set of active enzymes including: an active 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8HGO; 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase), wherein the active 8HGO is encoded by a nucleotide sequence that has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156; an active iridoid synthase (ISY), wherein the active ISY is encoded by a nucleotide sequence that has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724; and an active nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), wherein the active NEPS is encoded by a nucleotide sequence that has at least 60% sequence identity with a nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 1506-1562.

Embodiment 367: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of embodiment 365 or embodiment 366, wherein the active 8HGO has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:330-368.

Embodiment 368: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of embodiment 365 or embodiment 366, wherein the active 8HGO includes an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 330-368.

Embodiment 369: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of any one of embodiments 365-368, wherein the active ISY has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 370: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of any one of embodiments 365-368, wherein the active ISY includes an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 369-519, 1695-1724.

Embodiment 371: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of any one of embodiments 365-370, wherein the active NEPS has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:718-774.

Embodiment 372: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of any one of embodiments 365-370, wherein the active NEPS includes any one of SEQ ID NOs: 718-774.

Embodiment 373: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of any one of embodiments 365-372, which is an engineered microbial cell.

Embodiment 374: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 373, wherein the engineered microbial cell is capable of producing nepetalactol.

Embodiment 375: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 374, wherein the engineered microbial cell includes a bacterial cell.

Embodiment 376: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 375, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus Escherichia or Corynebacterium.

Embodiment 377: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 376, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus and species E. coli or C. glutamicum.

Embodiment 378: The engineered microbial cell of any one of embodiments 374, wherein the engineered microbial cell includes a fungal cell.

Embodiment 379: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 378, wherein the fungal cell includes a yeast cell.

Embodiment 380: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 379, wherein the yeast cell is a cell of the genus Saccharomyces or Yarrowia.

Embodiment 381: The engineered microbial cell of embodiment 380, wherein the bacterial cell is a cell of the genus and species S. cerevisiae or Y. lipolytica.

Embodiment 382: A culture of engineered microbial cells according to any one of embodiments 373-381.

Embodiment 383: The culture of embodiment 382, wherein the substrate includes a carbon source and a nitrogen source selected from the group consisting of urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 384: The culture of embodiment 382 or embodiment 383, wherein the engineered microbial cells are present in a concentration such that the culture has an optical density at 600 nm of 1-500, optionally wherein the optical density is measured without concentrating cells.

Embodiment 385: The culture of any one of embodiments 382-384, wherein the culture includes nepetalactol.

Embodiment 386: The culture of embodiment 385, wherein the nepetalactol includes (4αS,7S,7αR)-nepetalactol, and the culture does not comprise any other stereoisomer of nepetalactol that is detectable by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Embodiment 387: A method of culturing engineered microbial cells according to any one of embodiments 373-381, the method including culturing the cells under suitable conditions, whereby the engineered microbial cells produce nepetalactol.

Embodiment 388: The method of embodiment 287, wherein the method includes fed-batch culture, with an initial sugar level in the range of 1-100 g/L, followed by controlled sugar feeding.

Embodiment 389: The method of embodiment 287 or embodiment 288, wherein the fermentation substrate includes sugar and a nitrogen source selected from the group consisting of urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, and any combination thereof.

Embodiment 390: The method of any one of embodiments 287-289, wherein the culture is pH-controlled during culturing.

Embodiment 391: The method of any one of embodiments 287-290, wherein the culture is aerated during culturing.

Embodiment 392: The engineered cell or reaction mixture of any one of embodiments 365-373, which is a reaction mixture additionally including nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP+).

Embodiment 393: The reaction mixture of embodiment 392, wherein the reaction mixture produces nepetalactol.

Embodiment 394: A method of producing nepetalactol using a culture according to embodiments 382-391 or a reaction mixture according to embodiment 392 or embodiment 393.

Embodiment 395: The method of embodiment 394, wherein the method additionally includes converting the nepetalactol to nepetalactone.

Embodiment 396: The method of embodiment 395, wherein the nepetalactol is converted to nepetalactone by contacting the nepetalactol with a nepetalactone oxidoreductase and NAD+ or NADP+.

Embodiment 397: The method of embodiment 396, wherein the method additionally includes converting nepetalactone to dihydronepetalactone.

Embodiment 398: The method of embodiment 397, wherein nepetalactone is converted to dihydronepetalactone by contacting nepetalactone with hydrogen and a hydrogenation catalyst.

Embodiment 399: A cell culture medium including nepetalactol, wherein the nepetalactol includes (4αS,7S,7αR)-nepetalactol, and the cell culture medium does not comprise any other stereoisomer of nepetalactol that is detectable by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Embodiment 400: Nepetalactol purified from the cell culture medium of embodiment 399.

Embodiment 401: Nepetalactol produced from an in vitro reaction mixture, wherein the nepetalactol includes (4αS,7S,7αR)-nepetalactol and does not comprise any other stereoisomer of nepetalactol that is detectable by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.

Embodiment 402: Nepetalactone produced by conversion of the nepetalactol of embodiment 400 or embodiment 401 to nepetalactone.

Embodiment 403: An isolated polypeptide sequence that encodes an active enzyme, wherein the active enzyme has an amino acid sequence that has at least 70% sequence identity with an amino acid sequence encoded by nucleotide sequence selected from the group consisting of: SEQ ID NOs:789-927, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); SEQ ID NOs:928-1037, wherein the active enzyme is a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); SEQ ID NOs:1038-1072, 1088-1110, wherein the active enzyme is a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); SEQ ID NOs:1073-1087, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; SEQ ID NOs:1111-1117, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156, wherein the active enzyme is an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); SEQ ID NOs:1157-1307, 1778-1807, wherein the active enzyme is an iridoid synthase (ISY); SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727, wherein the active enzyme is a nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR); SEQ ID NOs:1571-1576, wherein the active enzyme is a cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562, wherein the active enzyme is a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS); SEQ ID NOs:1396-1397, 1728-1777, wherein the active enzyme is a GPPS-GES fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1398-1462, wherein the active enzyme is a G8H-CPR fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1463-1481, wherein the active enzyme is a G8H-CPR-CYB5 fusion; SEQ ID NOs:1482-1493, wherein the active enzyme is a 8HGO-ISY fusion; or SEQ ID NOs:1494-1505, wherein the active enzyme is a ISY-NEPS fusion; wherein the enzyme-encoding nucleotide sequence is operably linked to a promoter sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1577-1633 or a terminator sequence selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs:1634-1641.

Embodiment 404: The polypeptide sequence of embodiment 403, wherein the polypeptide is heterologously expressed in a microbial host cell.

Embodiment 405: The polypeptide sequence of embodiment 404, wherein the host cell is a bacterial cell or a yeast cell.

Embodiment 406: The polypeptide sequence of any one of embodiments 404-405, wherein the host cell is capable of producing nepetalactol and/or nepetalactone.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A-1B: Nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway (A) Conversion of the native precursor metabolites, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) into 8-hydroxygeraniol. (B) Conversion of 8-hydroxygeraniol to nepetalactone. Prior to work described herein, cyclization of the enol intermediate into nepetalactol was thought to be catalyzed by ISY or occur spontaneously in planta. The work described here shows that a novel enzyme, nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), acts as a cyclase and significantly enhances this reaction in vitro and in vivo. In addition, NEPSs control the stereochemistry of cyclization and different NEPS can specifically produce any one of the four depicted nepetalactol stereoisomers. Nepetalactol is converted to nepetalactone by a previously uncharacterized oxidoreductase (nepetalactol oxidoreductase, NOR).

FIG. 2A-2B: Conversion of nepetalactol to nepetalactone by candidate nepetalactol oxidoreductases (NORs). See Example 1. (A) Nepetalactone produced in the presence of NAD⁺ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, NAD) and/or NADP⁺ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate, NADP) in clarified cell lysates from cells expressing various candidate NORs. (B) Concentration of residual nepetalactol after reaction. The results show that three candidate NORs (NcatNOR15, NcatNOR21, and NcatNOR34) can covert nepetalactol to nepetalactone. (In FIG. 2A-B, “uM” is used to refer to “μM.”)

FIG. 3: In vitro conversion of 8-oxogeranial to nepetalactol in the presence of iridoid synthase (ISY), NADH, and NADPH. The symbols for “IS reaction no cofactors” and “IS reaction no substrate” overlap for N. mussinii.

See Example 3.

FIG. 4: In vitro conversion of 8-oxogeranial in the presence of iridoid synthase (ISY, IS), nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) and NADPH. Catharanthus roseus ISY del22 is truncated at the N-terminus by 22 amino acids. (In FIG. 4, “ug” is used to refer to “μg.”). See Example 4.

FIG. 5: In vitro conversion of 8-hydroxygeraniol to nepetalactol by 8HGOs coupled to Nepeta mussinii iridoid synthase (ISY) and C. roseus nepetalactol synthase (NEPS_1) in the presence of NAD⁺ and NADPH. The nepetalactol produced is (4αS,7S,7αR)-nepetalactol, as determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (no other stereoisomsers were detected by this method). (In FIG. 5, “ug” is used to refer to “μg.”). See Example 5.

FIG. 6A-6C: Production of nepetalactol and nepetalactone in engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. (A) Titers of nepetalactol and nepetalactone in engineered strains compared to wild-type and a non-inoculated control. Geraniol or 8-hydroxygeraniol were provided as substrate feeds (i.e., carbon sources) at a final concentration of 500 mg/L. Only the cis,trans-nepetalactone isomer was produced. (B) Strain genotypes of engineered strains. Gene deletions are indicated by A. “ihol1” indicates that the cassette has been integrated at a neutral loci, specifically, an intergenic region between HOL1 and a proximal gene. (C) Gene names and their corresponding source organisms that were introduced into the engineered strains. See Example 2.

FIG. 7: Production of nepetalactone from nepetalactol in engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains expressing NOR candidates from a 2μ plasmid (pESC-URA). See Example 6.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure enables biosynthesis of nepetalactone in a microbial host. This biosynthetic pathway is capable of converting glucose or other fed intermediates to the final product, nepetalactone.

Also described herein are the nucleotide and amino acid sequences of nepetalactol oxidoreductases (NORs), which were found to catalyze the conversion of nepetalactol to nepetalactone in vitro in the presence of NAD+ or NADP+. The identification of these enzymes provides a biosynthetic path from nepetalactol to nepetalactone. The NORs may be heterologously expressed in a microbial host that harbors a nepetalactol pathway for production of nepetalactone, or expressed in a cell-free or microbial system and purified for chemoenzymatic conversion of nepetalactol into nepetalactone in the presence of NAD+ or NADP+. This bioconversion provides a greener and cheaper alternative to chemical conversion that decreases the total number of process steps required for industrial-scale manufacturing.

Definitions

Terms used in the claims and specification are defined as set forth below unless otherwise specified.

The term “fermentation” is used herein to refer to a process whereby a microbial cell converts one or more substrate(s) into a desired product by means of one or more biological conversion steps, without the need for any chemical conversion step.

The term “engineered” is used herein, with reference to a cell, to indicate that the cell contains at least one targeted genetic alteration introduced by man that distinguishes the engineered cell from the naturally occurring cell.

The terms “polypeptide,” “peptide,” and “protein” refer to a polymer of amino acid residues. The terms apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residue is an artificial chemical analogue of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid, as well as to naturally occurring amino acid polymers. Typical peptides/polypeptides/proteins are chains of amino acids whose a carbons are linked through peptide bonds. However, the term also includes variants on the traditional peptide linkage joining the amino acids making up the polypeptide. The terminal amino acid at one end of the chain (amino terminal) therefore has a free amino group, while the terminal amino acid at the other end of the chain (carboxy terminal) has a free carboxyl group. Proteins also include essentially any polyamino acid including, but not limited to peptide mimetics such as amino acids joined by an ether as opposed to an amide bond. Typically, any of the protein sequences provided herein comprise all “L” amino acids. However, in certain embodiments, any of the protein sequences provided herein can comprise a combination of “L” and “D” amino acids. In certain embodiments any of the protein sequences described herein comprise all “D” amino acids thereby providing the D-enantiomer or inverso form of the protein. In certain embodiments any of the protein sequences described herein comprise a retro-protein in which the amino acids are all “L” amino acids, but in a reverse order. In certain embodiments any of the protein sequences described herein comprise a retro-inverso protein composed of all “D” amino acids in a reverse order.

As used herein, the term “amino terminus” (abbreviated N-terminus) refers to the free α-amino group on an amino acid at the amino terminal of a protein or to the α-amino group (imino group when participating in a peptide bond) of an amino acid at any other location within the protein.

The term “carboxy terminus” refers to the free carboxyl group on the carboxy terminus of a protein or the carboxyl group of an amino acid at any other location within the protein.

The terms “polynucleotide,” “oligonucleotide,” and “nucleic acid” includes any form of DNA or RNA, including, for example, genomic DNA; complementary DNA (cDNA), which is a DNA representation of mRNA, usually obtained by reverse transcription of messenger RNA (mRNA) or by amplification; DNA molecules produced synthetically or by amplification; and mRNA. Polynucleotides/oligonucleotides/nucleic acids encompass double- or triple-stranded nucleic acids, as well as single-stranded molecules. In double- or triple-stranded nucleic acids, the nucleic acid strands need not be coextensive (i.e., a double-stranded nucleic acid need not be double-stranded along the entire length of both strands). Polynucleotides/oligonucleotides/nucleic acids also encompass any chemical modification thereof, such as by methylation and/or by capping. Illustrative modifications can include addition of chemical groups that incorporate additional charge, polarizability, hydrogen bonding, electrostatic interaction, and/or functionality to the individual nucleotide bases or to the polynucleotide as a whole. Such modifications may include base modifications such as 2′-position sugar modifications, 5-position pyrimidine modifications, 8-position purine modifications, modifications at cytosine exocyclic amines, substitutions of 5-bromo-uracil, backbone modifications, unusual base pairing combinations such as the isobases isocytidine and isoguanidine, and the like. Polynucleotides/oligonucleotides/nucleic acids can be derived from a completely chemical synthesis process, such as a solid phase-mediated chemical synthesis, from a biological source, such as through isolation from any species that produces nucleic acid, or from processes that involve the manipulation of nucleic acids by molecular biology tools, such as DNA replication, amplification (e.g., PCR), reverse transcription, or from a combination of any of these processes.

As used with reference to a polynucleotide or a polypeptide, the term “chimeric” indicates that the polynucleotide or polypeptide includes at least two sub-sequences that are not naturally found together in a single molecule. Chimeric polypeptides are also termed “fusion proteins.”

The term “native” used herein to refer to a cellular component, such as a polynucleotide or polypeptide, that is naturally present in a particular cell. A native polynucleotide or polypeptide is endogenous to the cell.

The term “isolated” is used herein with reference to a cellular component or product, such as a polynucleotide or polypeptide, to indicate that the cellular component has been separated from at least one other component that normally accompanies it as found in its native state. This term encompasses, for example, a polynucleotide that is separated from sequences that normally flank the polynucleotide in nature, as well as a polynucleotide introduced into a cell that does not naturally contain it.

In some embodiments, a cellular component or product is “purified,” which indicates that the cellular component or product is substantially free from all other components/products that normally accompany it as found in its native state. In some embodiments, the cellular component is a protein that is purified to homogeneity, such that no other components that normally accompany it can be detected on a silver-stained gel.

When used with reference to a polynucleotide or polypeptide, the term “non-native” refers to a polynucleotide or polypeptide that is not naturally present in a particular cell.

When used with reference to the context in which a gene is expressed, the term “non-native” refers to a gene expressed in any context other than the genomic and cellular context in which it is naturally expressed. A gene expressed in a non-native manner may have the same nucleotide sequence as the corresponding gene in a host cell, but may be expressed from a vector or from an integration point in the genome that differs from the locus of the native gene.

The term “heterologous” is used herein to describe a polynucleotide or polypeptide introduced into a host cell. This term encompasses a polynucleotide or polypeptide, respectively, derived from a different organism, species, or strain than that of the host cell. In this case, the heterologous polynucleotide or polypeptide has a sequence that is different from any sequence(s) found in the same host cell. However, the term also encompasses a polynucleotide or polypeptide that has a sequence that is the same as a sequence found in the host cell, wherein the polynucleotide or polypeptide is present in a different context than the native sequence (e.g., a heterologous polynucleotide can be linked to a different promotor and inserted into a different genomic location than that of the native sequence). “Heterologous expression” thus encompasses expression of a sequence that is non-native to the host cell, as well as expression of a sequence that is native to the host cell in a non-native context.

As used with reference to polynucleotides or polypeptides, the term “wild-type” refers to any polynucleotide having a nucleotide sequence, or polypeptide having an amino acid, sequence present in a polynucleotide or polypeptide from a naturally occurring organism, regardless of the source of the molecule; i.e., the term “wild-type” refers to sequence characteristics, regardless of whether the molecule is purified from a natural source; expressed recombinantly, followed by purification; or synthesized. The term “wild-type” is also used to denote naturally occurring cells.

Enzymes are identified herein by the reactions they catalyze and, unless otherwise indicated, refer to any polypeptide capable of catalyzing the identified reaction. Unless otherwise indicated, enzymes may be derived from any organism and may have a native or mutated amino acid sequence. As is well known, enzymes may have multiple functions and/or multiple names, sometimes depending on the source organism from which they derive. The enzyme names used herein encompass orthologs, including enzymes that may have one or more additional functions or a different name.

The term “feedback-deregulated” is used herein with reference to an enzyme that is normally negatively regulated by a downstream product of the enzymatic pathway (i.e., feedback-inhibition) in a particular cell. In this context, a “feedback-deregulated” enzyme is a form of the enzyme that is less sensitive to feedback-inhibition than the native enzyme native to the cell. A feedback-deregulated enzyme may be produced by introducing one or more mutations into a native enzyme. Alternatively, a feedback-deregulated enzyme may simply be a heterologous, native enzyme that, when introduced into a particular microbial cell, is not as sensitive to feedback-inhibition as the native, native enzyme. In some embodiments, the feedback-deregulated enzyme shows no feedback-inhibition in the microbial cell.

The term “nepetalactol” refers to all stereoisomers of nepetalactol, for example, (4aS,7S,7aR)-4,7-Dimethyl-1,4a,5,6,7,7a-hexahydrocyclopenta[c]pyran-1-ol.

The term “nepetalactone” refers to all stereoisomers of nepetalactone, for example, 4,7-Dimethyl-5,6,7,7a-tetrahydrocyclopenta[c]pyran-1(4aH)-one (CAS No. 490-10-8).

The term “dihydronepetalactone” refers to all stereoisomers of dihydronepetalactone, for example, (4S,4aR,7S,7aR)-4,7-dimethyl-4,4a,5,6,7,7a-hexahydro-3H-cyclopenta[c]pyran-1-one.

The term “sequence identity,” in the context of two or more amino acid or nucleotide sequences, refers to two or more sequences that are the same or have a specified percentage of amino acid residues or nucleotides that are the same, when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence, as measured using a sequence comparison algorithm or by visual inspection.

For sequence comparison to determine percent nucleotide or amino acid sequence identity, typically one sequence acts as a “reference sequence,” to which a “test” sequence is compared. When using a sequence comparison algorithm, test and reference sequences are input into a computer, subsequence coordinates are designated, if necessary, and sequence algorithm program parameters are designated. The sequence comparison algorithm then calculates the percent sequence identity for the test sequence relative to the reference sequence, based on the designated program parameters. Alignment of sequences for comparison can be conducted using BLAST set to default parameters.

The term “titer,” as used herein, refers to the mass of a product produced in a reaction divided by volume in which the reaction is carried out. For example, to calculate the titer of a product produced by a culture of microbial cells, one can divide the mass of the product by the culture volume. For a product produced in an in vitro reaction using a cell lysate or purified enzyme, one can calculate the titer by dividing the mass of the product by the volume of the reaction mixture.

As used herein with respect to recovering nepetalactone from a cell culture, “recovering” refers to separating the nepetalactone from at least one other component of the cell culture medium.

When used with respect to a NOR, the term “active” means capable of converting nepetalactol to nepetalactone.

As used herein, “overproduction” of nepetalactone refers to production of nepetalactone at a higher level than in a reference organism. A reference organism can be, e.g., an organism that is not naturally capable of producing nepetalactone that has been engineered to have this capability. Further engineering that enhances this production gives rise to engineered organisms that overproduce nepetalactone relative to the initial engineered organism.

Novel Pathway for Microbial Production of Nepetalactone

The pathway for producing nepetalactone from the precursor metabolites, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) through the intermediate geraniol diphosphate (geraniol-PP or GPP) is shown in FIG. 1. Illustrative nucleotide and amino acid sequences corresponding to the enzymes related to this pathway are found in the Sequence Listing (SEQ ID NOs:1-1576, 1642-1807). The Sequence Listing also provides illustrative promoter (SEQ ID NOs:1577-1633) and terminator sequences (SEQ ID NOs:1634-1641) from Saccharomyces cerevisiae, or further engineered, that can be used to express any of these enzymes (e.g., in Saccharomyces cerevisiae) in some embodiments. The enzyme(s) to be introduced to reconstitute the nepetalactone pathway in a host cell (e.g., a microbial host cell) depend(s) on the enzymes native to that host cell. In some embodiments, fusion polypeptide(s) may be introduced having the activity of one or more enzyme involved in the production of nepetalactone. These can include one or more of the following enzymes:

Set 1: One or more geraniol diphosphate synthases (GPPS) capable of the condensation of IPP and DMAPP to geranyl diphosphate (GPP); e.g., SEQ ID NOs:789-927 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:1-139 (amino acid sequences).

Set 2: One or more geraniol synthases (GES) capable of synthesizing geraniol from geranyl diphosphate (GPP); e.g., SEQ ID NOs:928-1037 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:140-249 (amino acid sequences).

Set 3: One or more geraniol hydroxylases (G8H or G10H) capable of hydroxylation of geraniol to form 8-hydroxygeraniol; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1038-1072, 1088-1110 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:250-284, 300-322 (amino acid sequences).

Set 4: One or more cytochrome P450 reductases (CPR) capable of assisting in regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1073-1087 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:285-299 (amino acid sequences).

Set 5: One or more cytochrome B5 (CYB5 or CytB5) capable of assisting in regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1111-1117 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:323-329 (amino acid sequences).

Set 6: One or more hydroxygeraniol oxidases (8HGO; also termed hydroxygeraniol oxidases [10HGO], as well as hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenases) capable of oxidation of 8-hydroxygeraniol to 8-oxogeraniol, followed by further oxidation of 8-oxogeraniol to 8-oxogeranial. These enzymes catalyze the oxidation of 8-hydroxygeraniol to either 8-hydroxygeranial or 8-oxogeraniol followed by subsequent oxidation of either intermediate to 8-oxogeranial in the presence of the cofactor, nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD⁺) or nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADP⁺) for each equivalent oxidation. See, e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1118-1156 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:330-368 (amino acid sequences).

Set 7: One or more iridoid synthases (IS or ISY) capable of cyclization of 8-oxogeranial to nepetalactol; and/or one or more IS capable of carrying out this cyclization with reduced byproduct formation. Iridoid synthases catalyze the 1,4-reduction of 8-oxogeranial to form an enol intermediate in the presence of the cofactor reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH) or reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH). See, e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1157-1307, 1778-1807 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:369-519, 1695-1724 (amino acid sequences). The enol intermediate can be cyclized to nepetalactol spontaneously, by the iridoid synthase, or by a newly discovered enzyme, nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), which is described in more detail below; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:718-774 (amino acid sequences). In some embodiments, therefore, Set 7 can include one or more NEPS (which, in some embodiments, is used in addition to an IS). In other embodiments, the one of more NEPS are included in a separate set of enzymes.

Set 8: One or more nepetalactol oxidoreductases (NOR) capable of oxidation of nepetalactol to nepetalactone; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644 (amino acid sequences).

Set 9: One or more cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R); e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 1571-1576 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:783-788 (amino acid sequences).

Set 10: One or more GPPS-GES fusion; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1396-1397, 1728-1777 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:608-609, 1645-1694 (amino acid sequences).

Set 11: One or more G8H-CPR fusion; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1398-1462 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:610-674 (amino acid sequences).

Set 12: One or more G8H-CPR-CYB5 fusion; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1463-1481 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:675-693 (amino acid sequences).

Set 13: One or more 8HGO-ISY fusion; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1482-1493 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:694-705 (amino acid sequences).

Set 14: One or more ISY-NEPS fusion; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1494-1505 (nucleotide sequences) and SEQ ID NOs:706-717 (amino acid sequences).

In various embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express: (a) one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs); (b) one or more enzymes from sets 7 and 8; (c) one or more enzymes from sets 6-8; (c) one or more enzymes from sets 5-8; (d) one or more enzymes from sets 4-8; (e) one or more enzymes from sets 3-8; (0 one or more enzymes from sets 2-8; and/or (g) one or more enzymes from sets 1-8 (e.g., as was done in Saccharomyces cerevisiae in Example 2).

In some embodiments, a microbial host cell is engineered to express one or more non-native enzymes from or involved in a biosynthetic pathway for producing nepetalactone from precursor metabolites. In some embodiments, the biosynthetic pathway for producing nepetalactone from precursor metabolites comprises the pathway shown in FIG. 1. In a preferred embodiment, the microbial host cell is a non-plant cell. In some embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express one or more enzymes from any one of sets 1-14 above. In some embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express one or more enzymes from any one or more of sets 1-14 above.

In some embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs). In other embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs), and a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) from set 7 above. In various embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs) and one or more enzymes from set 7 above (ISY), excluding a NEPS enzyme. In other embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs) and one or more enzymes from set 7 above (ISY), including one or more NEPS enzyme. In other embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs), one or more enzymes from set 7 above (ISY), including one or more NEPS enzyme, and one or more enzymes from set 6 above (8HGO). In other embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs), one or more enzymes from set 7 above (ISY), including one or more NEPS enzyme, one or more enzymes from set 6 above (8HGO), one or more enzymes from set 3 above (G8H). In other embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs), one or more enzymes from set 7 above (ISY), including one or more NEPS enzyme, one or more enzymes from set 6 above (8HGO), one or more enzymes from set 3 above (G8H), one or more enzymes from set 5 above (CYB5). In other embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising one or more enzymes from set 8 above (NORs), one or more enzymes from set 7 above (ISY), including one or more NEPS enzyme, one or more enzymes from set 6 above (8HGO), one or more enzymes from set 3 above (G8H), one or more enzymes from set 5 above (CYB5), one or more enzymes from set 4 above (CPR). In some embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide further comprising one or more enzymes from set 1 (GPPS) above and/or set 2 above (GES) in addition to the enzymes expressed in any one of the aforementioned embodiments. In yet other embodiments, the microbial host cell is engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising an engineered polypeptide (e.g., ISY-NEPS). Such engineered (i.e., fused) polypeptides may be introduced instead of or in addition to a heterologous non-fused enzyme having a common activity. For example, the microbial host cell may be engineered to express a heterologous polypeptide comprising ISY-NEPS to introduce or supplement ISY and/or NEPS activity in the cell.

Illustrative sets of nucleotide sequences encoding these enzymes are provided in Example 2 and the Sequence Listing filed herewith. These polynucleotides including these sequences, or variants thereof, are useful for reconstituting the nepetalactone pathway in microbes. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, it is possible to substitute one or more nucleotide bases without changing the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein. Variants of these polynucleotides include, for example, those having sequences that are codon-optimized for expression in a particular host cell. In various embodiments, variants of these polynucleotides include sequences at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with one or more of the nucleotide sequences referenced in the Examples and Sequence Listing filed herewith.

Novel Polynucleotides Encoding Nepetalactone Oxidoreductases

Examples 1 and 6 describe the identification and isolation of polynucleotides that include a nucleotide sequence that encode an active nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR). The nucleotide sequences encoding tested and/or putative NORs are given in the accompanying Sequence Listing; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727.

These polynucleotides, or variants thereof, are useful for producing NORs. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, it is possible to substitute one or more nucleotide bases without changing the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein. Variants of NOR polynucleotide sequences include, for example, those having sequences that are codon-optimized for expression in a particular host cell. In various embodiments, variants of the NOR polynucleotides have at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with one or more of SEQ ID NOs:1308-1395, 1563-1570, 1725-1727.

Novel Nepetalactone Oxidoreductase Polypeptides

The deduced amino acid sequences for these NOR polynucleotides are provided in the Sequence Listing; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644. Examples 1 and 6 demonstrate the function of novel NORs to convert nepetalactol to nepetalactone in the presence of NAD+ or NADP+.

In certain embodiments, modifications of the NOR polypeptide sequences, such as conservative substitutions of amino acids, are contemplated. In various embodiments one, two, three, four, five or more different residues are substituted. The term “conservative substitution” is used to reflect amino acid substitutions that do not substantially diminish the activity of the molecule. Typically, conservative amino acid substitutions involve substitution of one amino acid for another amino acid with similar chemical properties (e.g., charge or hydrophobicity). The following six illustrative, but non-limiting, groups each contain amino acids that are typical conservative substitutions for one another: 1) Alanine (A), Serine (S), Threonine (T); 2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K), Histidine (H); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V); and 6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W).

In various embodiments, the active NOR has an amino acid sequence that has more than 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with SEQ ID NOs:520-607, 775-782, 1642-1644.

Novel Polynucleotides Encoding Nepetalactol Synthases

Examples 4 describes the identification and isolation of polynucleotides that include a nucleotide sequence that encode an active nepetalactol synthase (NEPS). The nucleotide sequences encoding tested and/or putative NEPSs are given in the accompanying Sequence Listing; e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562.

These polynucleotides, or variants thereof, are useful for producing NEPSs. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, it is possible to substitute one or more nucleotide bases without changing the amino acid sequence of the encoded protein. Variants of NEPS polynucleotide sequences include, for example, those having sequences that are codon-optimized for expression in a particular host cell. In various embodiments, variants of the NEPS polynucleotides have at least 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with one or more of the nucleotide sequences given in the Sequence Listing, e.g., SEQ ID NOs:1506-1562.

Novel Nepetalactol Synthase Polypeptides

The deduced amino acid sequences for these NEPSs are also provided in the Sequence Listing (SEQ ID NOs:718-774). Example 4 demonstrates the function of novel NEPS to convert 8-oxogeranial to nepetalactol in the presence of iridoid synthase (ISY) and NADPH (see FIG. 5). In various embodiments, the presence of a NEPS increases nepetalactol production by at least 5-fold, 10-fold, 15-fold, 20-fold, 25-fold, 30-fold, 35-fold, 40-fold, 45-fold, or 50-fold, or more. In some embodiments the increase in nepetalactol production is less than 100-fold, 75-fold, or 50-fold. In particular embodiments, the increase in nepetalactol production falls within a range bounded by any of these values, such as, e.g., 5-fold to 50-fold or 10-fold to 40-fold.

In certain embodiments, modifications of the NEPS polypeptide sequences, such as conservative substitutions of amino acids, are contemplated. In various embodiments one, two, three, four, five or more different residues are substituted. The term “conservative substitution” is used to reflect amino acid substitutions that do not substantially diminish the activity of the molecule. Typically, conservative amino acid substitutions involve substitution of one amino acid for another amino acid with similar chemical properties (e.g., charge or hydrophobicity). The following six illustrative, but non-limiting, groups each contain amino acids that are typical conservative substitutions for one another: 1) Alanine (A), Serine (S), Threonine (T); 2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E); 3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q); 4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K), Histidine (H); 5) Isoleucine (I), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V); and 6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W).

In various embodiments, the polynucleotide encodes an active NEPS comprising an amino acid sequence that has more than 75, 80, 85, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, or 99 percent sequence identity with sequences given in the Sequence Listing, e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 718-774.

Novel Pathway for Biosynthetic Conversion of 8-Hydroxygeranial to Nepetalactol

In some embodiments, enzymes for biosynthetic conversion of the native precursor metabolites, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) to nepetalactol and, optionally, nepetalactone are used in nepetalactol/neptalactone production. The pathway for producing nepetalactol from the native precursor metabolites, dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) and isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) is shown in FIG. 1. The enzymes to be introduced to reconstitute the nepetalactone pathway in a host cell (e.g., a microbial host cell) depend on the enzymes native to that host cell. These can include one or more of the following enzymes:

any 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductase (8HGO; also termed hydroxygeraniol oxidases [10HGO], as well as hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenases) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any iridoid synthase (IS or ISY) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any nepetalactol synthase (NEPS) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any nepetalactone oxidoreductase (NOR) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any geraniol diphosphate synthases (GPPS) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any geraniol synthases (GES) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any geraniol hydroxylases (G8H or G10H) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any cytochrome P450 reductases (CPR) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any cytochrome B5 (CYB5 or CytB5) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any cytochrome B5 reductase (CYB5R or CYBR) described herein, or fusion thereof;

any GPPS-GES fusion, described herein, or further fusion thereof;

any G8H-CPR fusion, described herein, or further fusion thereof;

any G8H-CPR-CYB5 fusion, described herein, or further fusion thereof;

any 8HGO-ISY fusion, described herein, or further fusion thereof and/or

any ISY-NEPS fusion, described herein, or further fusion thereof.

These enzymes allow the biosynthesis of nepetalactol or nepetalactone in a host cell (e.g., a microbial host cell) when one or more of the above enzymes (e.g., 8HGO, ISY, NEPs, NORs) are co-expressed with the remaining known enzymes required for nepetalactol or nepetalactone formation, respectively. A host cell expressing one or more of the above enzymes may be provided with glucose and/or an intermediate in the pathway (e.g., 8-hydroxygeraniol and/or geraniol) to generate nepetalactol or nepetalactone in the cell. These enzymes can also be used in chemoenzymatic processes where 8-hydroxygeraniol and/or geraniol and the aforementioned cofactors are added to an enzyme preparation containing one or more of each of the enzymes. These enzymes can be obtained, e.g., by heterologous expression in a host cell, followed by cell lysis and optional protein purification steps, or by cell-free expression, followed by optional protein purification steps. Illustrative nucleotide and amino acid sequences for these enzymes, in addition to sequences discussed above with respect to the full pathway for producing nepetalactone, are found in the Sequence Listing (SEQ ID NOs:1-788, 1642-1724).

Engineering Host Cells to Express a Nepetalactone Pathway Enzyme

The polynucleotides described herein can be modified by adding a nucleotide sequence that is not naturally linked to the polynucleotide to form a chimeric polynucleotide. For example, a polynucleotide encoding a nepetalactone pathway enzyme (NPE) can be linked to a promoter, a ribosome binding sequence (RBS) and a downstream terminator sequence to produce an expression construct that can be introduced into a vector, as illustrated in the Examples. In many cases, the vector provides sequences that facilitate expression in a host cell.

Vectors

Vectors are polynucleotide vehicles used to introduce genetic material into a cell. Vectors useful in the methods described herein can be linear or circular. Vectors can integrate into a target genome of a host cell or replicate independently in a host cell. For many applications, integrating vectors that produced stable transformants are preferred. Vectors can include, for example, an origin of replication, a multiple cloning site (MCS), and/or a selectable marker. An expression vector typically includes an expression cassette containing regulatory elements that facilitate expression of a polynucleotide sequence (often a coding sequence) in a particular host cell. Vectors include, but are not limited to, integrating vectors, prokaryotic plasmids, episomes, viral vectors, cosmids, and artificial chromosomes.

Illustrative regulatory elements that may be used in expression cassettes include promoters, enhancers, internal ribosomal entry sites (IRES), and other expression control elements (e.g., transcription termination signals, such as polyadenylation signals and poly-U sequences). Such regulatory elements are described, for example, in Goeddel, Gene Expression Technology: Methods In Enzymology 185, Academic Press, San Diego, Calif. (1990).

Host Cells

Any host cell that can be used to express introduced genes can be engineered to express any of the NPEs described herein. In some embodiments, the host cell is a non-plant cell. Suitable host cells include microbial cells. In certain embodiments, the microbe is one that is naturally incapable of fermentative production of nepetalactone. In particular embodiments, the microbe is one that is naturally capable of producing nepetalactol, or one that has been engineered to produce nepetalactol, as described herein. In some embodiments, the microbe is one that is readily cultured, such as, for example, a microbe known to be useful as a host cell in fermentative production of compounds of interest. Bacteria cells, including gram positive or gram negative bacteria can be engineered as described herein. Examples include, in addition to C. glutamicum cells, Bacillus subtilus, B. licheniformis, B. lentus, B. brevis, B. stearothermophilus, B. alkalophilus, B. amyloliquefaciens, B. clausii, B. halodurans, B. megaterium, B. coagulans, B. circulars, B. lautus, B. thuringiensis, S. albus, S. lividans, S. coelicolor, S. griseus, Pseudomonas sp., P. alcaligenes, P. citrea, Lactobacilis spp. (such as L. lactis, L. plantarum), L. grayi, E. coli, E. faecium, E. gallinarum, E. casseliflavus, and/or E. faecalis cells.

There are numerous types of anaerobic cells that can be used as microbial host cells in the methods described herein. In some embodiments, the microbial cells are obligate anaerobic cells. Obligate anaerobes typically do not grow well, if at all, in conditions where oxygen is present. It is to be understood that a small amount of oxygen may be present, that is, there is some level of tolerance that obligate anaerobes have for a low level of oxygen. Obligate anaerobes engineered as described herein can be grown under substantially oxygen-free conditions, wherein the amount of oxygen present is not harmful to the growth, maintenance, and/or fermentation of the anaerobes.

Alternatively, the microbial host cells used in the methods described herein can be facultative anaerobic cells. Facultative anaerobes can generate cellular ATP by aerobic respiration (e.g., utilization of the TCA cycle) if oxygen is present. However, facultative anaerobes can also grow in the absence of oxygen. Facultative anaerobes engineered as described herein can be grown under substantially oxygen-free conditions, wherein the amount of oxygen present is not harmful to the growth, maintenance, and/or fermentation of the anaerobes, or can be alternatively grown in the presence of greater amounts of oxygen.

In some embodiments, the microbial host cells used in the methods described herein are filamentous fungal cells. (See, e.g., Berka & Barnett, Biotechnology Advances, (1989), 7(2):127-154). Examples include Trichoderma longibrachiatum, T. viride, T. koningii, T. harzianum, Penicillium sp., Humicola insolens, H. lanuginose, H. grisea, Chrysosporium sp., C. lucknowense, Gliocladium sp., Aspergillus sp. (such as A. oryzae, A. niger, A. sojae, A. japonicus, A. nidulans, or A. awamori), Fusarium sp. (such as F. roseum, F. graminum F. cerealis, F. oxysporuim, or F. venenatum), Neurospora sp. (such as N. crassa or Hypocrea sp.), Mucor sp. (such as M. miehei), Rhizopus sp., and Emericella sp. cells. In particular embodiments, the fungal cell engineered as described herein is A. nidulans, A. awamori, A. oryzae, A. aculeatus, A. niger, A. japonicus, T. reesei, T. viride, F. oxysporum, or F. solani. Illustrative plasmids or plasmid components for use with such hosts include those described in U.S. Patent Pub. No. 2011/0045563.

Yeasts can also be used as the microbial host cell in the methods described herein. Examples include: Saccharomyces sp., Schizosaccharomyces sp., Pichia sp., Hansenula polymorpha, Pichia stipites, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Kluyveromyces spp., Yarrowia lipolytica and Candida sp. In some embodiments, the Saccharomyces sp. is S. cerevisiae (See, e.g., Romanos et al., Yeast, (1992), 8(6):423-488). Illustrative plasmids or plasmid components for use with such hosts include those described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,659,097 and U.S. Patent Pub. No. 2011/0045563.

In some embodiments, the host cell can be an algal cell derived, e.g., from a green algae, red algae, a glaucophyte, a chlorarachniophyte, a euglenid, a chromista, or a dinoflagellate. (See, e.g., Saunders & Warmbrodt, “Gene Expression in Algae and Fungi, Including Yeast,” (1993), National Agricultural Library, Beltsville, Md.). Illustrative plasmids or plasmid components for use in algal cells include those described in U.S. Patent Pub. No. 2011/0045563.

In other embodiments, the host cell is a cyanobacterium, such as cyanobacterium classified into any of the following groups based on morphology: Chlorococcales, Pleurocapsales, Oscillatoriales, Nostocales, Synechosystic or Stigonematales (See, e.g., Lindberg et al., Metab. Eng., (2010) 12(1):70-79). Illustrative plasmids or plasmid components for use in cyanobacterial cells include those described in U.S. Patent Pub. Nos. 2010/0297749 and 2009/0282545 and in Intl. Pat. Pub. No. WO 2011/034863.

Genetic Engineering Methods

Microbial cells can be engineered to express any of the NPEs described herein and, optionally, for fermentative nepetalactone production using conventional techniques of molecular biology (including recombinant techniques), microbiology, cell biology, and biochemistry, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature, see e.g., “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual,” fourth edition (Sambrook et al., 2012); “Oligonucleotide Synthesis” (M. J. Gait, ed., 1984); “Culture of Animal Cells: A Manual of Basic Technique and Specialized Applications” (R. I. Freshney, ed., 6th Edition, 2010); “Methods in Enzymology” (Academic Press, Inc.); “Current Protocols in Molecular Biology” (F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., 1987, and periodic updates); “PCR: The Polymerase Chain Reaction,” (Mullis et al., eds., 1994); Singleton et al., Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology 2nd ed., J. Wiley & Sons (New York, N.Y. 1994).

Vectors or other polynucleotides can be introduced into microbial cells by any of a variety of standard methods, such as transformation, conjugation, electroporation, nuclear microinjection, transduction, transfection (e.g., lipofection mediated or DEAE-Dextrin mediated transfection or transfection using a recombinant phage virus), incubation with calcium phosphate DNA precipitate, high velocity bombardment with DNA-coated microprojectiles, and protoplast fusion. Transformants can be selected by any method known in the art. Suitable methods for selecting transformants are described in U.S. Patent Pub. Nos. 2009/0203102, 2010/0048964, and 2010/0003716, and International Publication Nos. WO 2009/076676, WO 2010/003007, and WO 2009/132220.

Examples 1-3, 6 describes an illustrative approach for identifying and expressing NORs and NEPS in E. coli and Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells.

Cells Engineered to Express Nepetalactone Pathway Enzymes

The above-described methods can be used to produce engineered host cells that express one or more heterologous NPEs, such as those described herein. In a preferred embodiment, the engineered host cell is a non-plant cell. In some embodiments, a NOR is expressed and then used to convert nepetalactol to nepetalactone. In this case, the engineered host cells need not produce nepetalactol, which can be separately provided to the expressed NOR (e.g., in the culture medium, cell lysate, or purified), along with NAD+ and/or NADP+.

In other embodiments, the engineered host cell produces, and in certain embodiments, overproduces, nepetalactone. In some embodiments, non-plant cells are engineered to produce or overproduce nepetalactone. In particular embodiments, the non-plant cells are microbial cells, and for ease of discussion, the following description focuses on microbial cells (although those of skill in the art readily appreciate that the following considerations apply to non-microbial cells, as well). In some embodiments, the microbial cell is one that produces isopentyl diphosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl diphosphate (DMAPP). Such a cell can be engineered to produce nepetalactone by expressing any of the following enzymes that are not native to the microbial cell: a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS), a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase (GES)), a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H), a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H, a cytochrome B5 (CYB5) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H, 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO), an iridoid synthase (ISY), and/or a NOR, e.g., as described above in the section entitled “Novel Pathway for Microbial Production of Nepetalactone” (see also co-owned International Application No. PCT/US18/64351, entitled “Engineered Biosynthetic Pathways for Production of (6E)-8-Hydroxygeraniol By Fermentation,” which is incorporated by reference in its entirety and specifically for its description of genetic engineering of the iridoid synthetic pathway to produce (6E)-8-hydroxygeraniol).

Engineered microbial cells can have 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 or more genetic alterations, as compared to a native microbial cell, such as any of the microbial host cells described herein. Those of skill in the art can, following the guidance set forth herein, can design microbial cells with additional alterations. Additional genetic alterations can be introduced to increase nepetalactone production by, for example, increasing the activity of upstream enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway leading to nepetalactone, reducing the consumption of precursor compounds (e.g., by “side-pathways” leading to products other than nepetalactone), or by reducing feedback inhibition. In some embodiments, the engineered microbial cells have not more than 15, 14, 13, 12, 11, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, or 4 genetic alterations, as compared to a native microbial cell. In various embodiments, microbial cells engineered for nepetalactone production can have a number of genetic alterations falling within the any of the following illustrative ranges: 1-20, 2-19, 3-18, 4-17, 5-16, 6-15, 7-14, 7-13, 7-12, or 7-11, etc.

In some embodiments, the methods and/or engineered microbes described herein are capable of producing nepetalactone and/or nepetalactol at a level of at least about: 0.01 g/L, 0.02 g/L, 0.03 g/L, 0.04 g/L, 0.05 g/L, 0.06 g/L, 0.07 g/L, 0.08 g/L, 0.09 g/L, 0.10 g/L, 0.20 g/L, 0.30 g/L, 0.40 g/L, 0.50 g/L, 0.60 g/L, 0.70 g/L, 0.80 g/L, 0.90 g/L, 1.00 g/L, 2.00 g/L, 3.00 g/L, 4.00 g/L, 5.00 g/L, 6.00 g/L, 7.00 g/L, 8.00 g/L, 9.00 g/L, 10.00 g/L, 20.00 g/L, 30.00 g/L, 40.00 g/L, or 50.00 g/L of cell lysate or culture medium. In some embodiments, the methods and/or engineered microbes described herein are capable of producing nepetalactone and/or nepetalactol at a level of at most about: 0.01 g/L, 0.02 g/L, 0.03 g/L, 0.04 g/L, 0.05 g/L, 0.06 g/L, 0.07 g/L, 0.08 g/L, 0.09 g/L, 0.10 g/L, 0.20 g/L, 0.30 g/L, 0.40 g/L, 0.50 g/L, 0.60 g/L, 0.70 g/L, 0.80 g/L, 0.90 g/L, 1.00 g/L, 2.00 g/L, 3.00 g/L, 4.00 g/L, 5.00 g/L, 6.00 g/L, 7.00 g/L, 8.00 g/L, 9.00 g/L, 10.00 g/L, 20.00 g/L, 30.00 g/L, 40.00 g/L, or 50.00 g/L of cell lysate or culture medium. In some embodiments, the methods and/or engineered microbes described herein are capable of producing nepetalactone and/or nepetalactol at a level between about: 0.01-50.00 g/L, 0.05-40.00 g/L, 0.10-30.00 g/L, 0.15-20.00 g/L, 0.20-10.00 g/L, 0.30-10.00 g/L, 0.40-10.00 g/L, 0.50-10.00 g/L, 0.60-10.00 g/L, 0.70-10.00 g/L, 0.80-10.00 g/L, 0.90-10.00 g/L, 1.00-10.00 g/L, 2.00-10.00 g/L, 3.00-10.00 g/L, 4.00-10.00 g/L, 5.00-10.00 g/L, 0.20-5.00 g/L, 0.30-5.00 g/L, 0.40-5.00 g/L, 0.50-5.00 g/L, 0.60-5.00 g/L, 0.70-5.00 g/L, 0.80-5.00 g/L, 0.90-5.00 g/L, 1.00-5.00 g/L, 2.00-5.00 g/L, 3.00-5.00 g/L, 0.20-3.00 g/L, 0.30-3.00 g/L, 0.40-3.00 g/L, 0.50-3.00 g/L, 0.60-3.00 g/L, 0.70-3.00 g/L, 0.80-3.00 g/L, 0.90-3.00 g/L, 1.00-3.00 g/L, 2.00-3.00 g/L, 0.20-2.00 g/L, 0.30-2.00 g/L, 0.40-2.00 g/L, 0.50-2.00 g/L, 0.60-2.00 g/L, 0.70-2.00 g/L, 0.80-2.00 g/L, 0.90-2.00 g/L, or 1.00-2.00 g/L of cell lysate or culture medium.

In various embodiments, expression of a NOR in an engineered microbial cell enables the production of nepetalactone (in the presence of nepetalactol and NAD+ and/or NADP+) at a level of at least 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 μM of cell lysate or culture medium (e.g., if the NOR is secreted), or at least 1, 10, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 mM of cell lysate or culture medium or at least 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, or 10 M of cell lysate or culture medium. (50 μM nepetalactone equates to 8.31 mg/L). In various embodiments, the level is in the range of 10 μM to 10 M, 25 μM to 5 M, 50 μM to 4 M, 75 μM to 3 M, 100 μM to 2 M or any range bounded by any of the values listed above.

Culturing of Engineered Microbial Cells

Any of the microbial cells described herein can be cultured, e.g., for maintenance, growth, and/or nepetalactone production.

In some embodiments, the cultures are grown to an optical density at 600 nm of 10-500, such as an optical density of 50-150. In a preferred embodiment, the optical density is measured without concentrating cells

In various embodiments, the cultures include nepetalactone at a level of at least 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 μM of culture medium (if the NOR is secreted and if the culture includes nepetalactol and NAD+ or NADP+), or at least 1, 10, 50, 75, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700, 800, or 900 mM of culture medium or at least 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, or 10 M of culture medium. In various embodiments, the level is in the range of 10 μM to 10 M, 25 μM to 5 M, 50 μM to 4 M, 75 μM to 3 M, 100 μM to 2 M or any range bounded by any of the values listed above.

Culture Media

Microbial (as well as other) cells can be cultured in any suitable medium including, but not limited to, a minimal medium, i.e., one containing the minimum nutrients possible for cell growth. Minimal medium typically contains: (1) a carbon source for microbial growth; (2) salts, which may depend on the particular microbial cell and growing conditions; and (3) water. Suitable media can also include any combination of the following: a nitrogen source for growth and product formation, a sulfur source for growth, a phosphate source for growth, metal salts for growth, vitamins for growth, and other cofactors for growth.

Any suitable carbon source can be used to cultivate the host cells. The term “carbon source” refers to one or more carbon-containing compounds capable of being metabolized by a microbial cell. In various embodiments, the carbon source is a carbohydrate (such as a monosaccharide, a disaccharide, an oligosaccharide, or a polysaccharide), or an invert sugar (e.g., enzymatically treated sucrose syrup). Illustrative monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), and galactose; illustrative oligosaccharides include dextran or glucan, and illustrative polysaccharides include starch and cellulose. Suitable sugars include C6 sugars (e.g., fructose, mannose, galactose, or glucose) and C5 sugars (e.g., xylose or arabinose). Other, less expensive carbon sources include sugar cane juice, beet juice, sorghum juice, and the like, any of which may, but need not be, fully or partially deionized.

The salts in a culture medium generally provide essential elements, such as magnesium, nitrogen, phosphorus, and sulfur to allow the cells to synthesize proteins and nucleic acids.

Minimal medium can be supplemented with one or more selective agents, such as antibiotics.

To produce nepetalactone, the culture medium can include, and/or is supplemented during culture with, glucose and/or a nitrogen source such as urea, an ammonium salt, ammonia, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the culture medium includes and/or is supplemented to include any carbon source of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway, for example, as shown in FIG. 1. In some embodiments, the culture medium includes and/or is supplemented to include geraniol and/or 8-hydroxygeraniol. In some embodiments, the culture medium includes and/or is supplemented to include any carbon source of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway in the range of about 0.1-100 g/L.

Culture Conditions

Materials and methods suitable for the maintenance and growth of microbial (and other) cells are well known in the art. See, for example, U.S. Pub. Nos. 2009/0203102, 2010/0003716, and 2010/0048964, and International Pub. Nos. WO 2004/033646, WO 2009/076676, WO 2009/132220, and WO 2010/003007, Manual of Methods for General Bacteriology Gerhardt et al., eds), American Society for Microbiology, Washington, D.C. (1994) or Brock in Biotechnology: A Textbook of Industrial Microbiology, Second Edition (1989) Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Mass.

In general, cells are grown and maintained at an appropriate temperature, gas mixture, and pH (such as about 20° C. to about 37° C., about 6% to about 84% CO₂, and a pH between about 5 to about 9). In some aspects, cells are grown at 35° C. In certain embodiments, such as where thermophilic bacteria are used as the host cells, higher temperatures (e.g., 50° C.-75° C.) may be used. In some aspects, the pH ranges for fermentation are between about pH 5.0 to about pH 9.0 (such as about pH 6.0 to about pH 8.0 or about 6.5 to about 7.0). Cells can be grown under aerobic, anoxic, or anaerobic conditions based on the requirements of the particular cell.

Standard culture conditions and modes of fermentation, such as batch, fed-batch, or continuous fermentation that can be used are described in U.S. Publ. Nos. 2009/0203102, 2010/0003716, and 2010/0048964, and International Pub. Nos. WO 2009/076676, WO 2009/132220, and WO 2010/003007. Batch and Fed-Batch fermentations are common and well known in the art, and examples can be found in Brock, Biotechnology: A Textbook of Industrial Microbiology, Second Edition (1989) Sinauer Associates, Inc.

In some embodiments, the cells are cultured under limited sugar (e.g., glucose) conditions. In various embodiments, the amount of sugar that is added is less than or about 105% (such as about 100%, 90%, 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, 20%, or 10%) of the amount of sugar that can be consumed by the cells. In particular embodiments, the amount of sugar that is added to the culture medium is approximately the same as the amount of sugar that is consumed by the cells during a specific period of time. In some embodiments, the rate of cell growth is controlled by limiting the amount of added sugar such that the cells grow at the rate that can be supported by the amount of sugar in the cell medium. In some embodiments, sugar does not accumulate during the time the cells are cultured. In various embodiments, the cells are cultured under limited sugar conditions for times greater than or about 1, 2, 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, or 70 hours or even up to about 5-10 days. In various embodiments, the cells are cultured under limited sugar conditions for greater than or about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 95, or 100% of the total length of time the cells are cultured. While not intending to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that limited sugar conditions can allow more favorable regulation of the cells.

In some aspects, the cells are grown in batch culture. The cells can also be grown in fed-batch culture or in continuous culture. Additionally, the cells can be cultured in minimal medium, including, but not limited to, any of the minimal media described above. The minimal medium can be further supplemented with 1.0% (w/v) glucose (or any other six-carbon sugar) or less. Specifically, the minimal medium can be supplemented with 1% (w/v), 0.9% (w/v), 0.8% (w/v), 0.7% (w/v), 0.6% (w/v), 0.5% (w/v), 0.4% (w/v), 0.3% (w/v), 0.2% (w/v), or 0.1% (w/v) glucose. In some cultures, significantly higher levels of sugar (e.g., glucose) are used, e.g., at least 10% (w/v), 20% (w/v), 30% (w/v), 40% (w/v), 50% (w/v), 60% (w/v), 70% (w/v), or up to the solubility limit for the sugar in the medium. In some embodiments, the sugar levels fall within a range of any two of the above values, e.g.: 0.1-10% (w/v), 1.0-20% (w/v), 10-70% (w/v), 20-60% (w/v), or 30-50% (w/v). Furthermore, different sugar levels can be used for different phases of culturing. For fed-batch culture (e.g., of E. coli, S. cerevisiae or C. glutamicum), the sugar level can be about 100-200 g/L (10-20% (w/v)) in the batch phase and then up to about 500-700 g/L (50-70% in the feed).

Additionally, the minimal medium can be supplemented with 0.1% (w/v) or less yeast extract. Specifically, the minimal medium can be supplemented with 0.1% (w/v), 0.09% (w/v), 0.08% (w/v), 0.07% (w/v), 0.06% (w/v), 0.05% (w/v), 0.04% (w/v), 0.03% (w/v), 0.02% (w/v), or 0.01% (w/v) yeast extract. Alternatively, the minimal medium can be supplemented with 1% (w/v), 0.9% (w/v), 0.8% (w/v), 0.7% (w/v), 0.6% (w/v), 0.5% (w/v), 0.4% (w/v), 0.3% (w/v), 0.2% (w/v), or 0.1% (w/v) glucose and with 0.1% (w/v), 0.09% (w/v), 0.08% (w/v), 0.07% (w/v), 0.06% (w/v), 0.05% (w/v), 0.04% (w/v), 0.03% (w/v), or 0.02% (w/v) yeast extract. In some cultures, significantly higher levels of yeast extract can be used, e.g., at least 1.5% (w/v), 2.0% (w/v), 2.5% (w/v), or 3% (w/v). In some cultures (e.g., of E. coli, S. cerevisiae or C. glutamicum), the yeast extract level falls within a range of any two of the above values, e.g.: 0.5-3.0% (w/v), 1.0-2.5% (w/v), or 1.5-2.0% (w/v).

Illustrative materials and methods suitable for the maintenance and growth of the engineered microbial cells described herein can be found below in Examples 1 and 2.

Cell-Based Production and Recovery of Nepetalactol or Nepetalactone and Enzymes of the Nepetalactone Biosynthetic Pathway

Any of the methods described herein may further include a step of recovering an enzyme of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway as described herein (e.g., NOR) or, in cultures that produce it, recovering nepetalactone. In some embodiments, an upstream product of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway is recovered, for example nepetalactol. In some embodiments, where an enzyme of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway (e.g., NOR) or nepetalactone are produced intracellularly and not secreted, cells are recovered and a cell lysate is produced that contains an enzyme of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway (e.g., NOR) or nepetalactone. In some embodiments, where an enzyme of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway (e.g., NOR) is secreted and the nepetalactone is produced outside of the cells, an enzyme of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway (e.g., NOR) and/or nepetalactone is recovered. In some embodiments, where an enzyme of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway (e.g., NOR) and nepetalactone are produced intracellularly, and the nepetalactone is secreted, the nepetalactone is recovered. In any case, a so-called harvest stream can be recovered/harvested from the production vessel. The harvest stream may include, for instance, cell-containing or cell-free aqueous solution coming from the production vessel. In some embodiments, the latter contains secreted nepetalactone oxidoreductase and nepetalactone as a result of the conversion of nepetalactol to nepetalactone in culture medium. Any residual cells still present in the harvest stream may be separated from the nepelatactol oxidoreductase and nepetalactone by any operations known in the art, such as for instance filtration, centrifugation, decantation, membrane crossflow ultrafiltration or microfiltration, tangential flow ultrafiltration or microfiltration or dead-end filtration.

In some embodiments, a mixture of stereoisomers of nepelatactol and/or nepetalactone is produced or recovered. In some embodiments, a single stereoisomer of nepelatactol and/or nepetalactone is produced or recovered. In some embodiments, cis,trans-nepetalactol, trans,cis-nepetalactol, trans,trans-nepetalactol, and/or cis,cis-nepetalactol is produced and/or recovered. In some embodiments, cis,trans-nepetalactone, trans,cis-nepetalactone, trans,trans-nepetalactone, and/or cis,cis-nepetalactone is produced and/or recovered.

Further steps of separation and/or purification of the enzyme of an nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway as described herein (e.g., NOR) or, in cultures that produce it, nepetalactone, from other components contained in the harvest stream, i.e., so-called downstream processing steps may optionally be carried out. These steps may include any means known to a skilled person, such as, for instance, concentration, extraction, crystallization, precipitation, adsorption, ion exchange, chromatography and/or distillation. Any of these procedures can be used alone or in combination to purify nepetalactone. Further purification steps can include one or more of, e.g., concentration, crystallization, precipitation, washing and drying, treatment with activated carbon, ion exchange and/or re-crystallization. The design of a suitable purification protocol may depend on the cells, the culture medium, the size of the culture, the production vessel, etc. and is within the level of skill in the art.

Cell-Free Production and Recovery of Nepetalactol or Nepetalactone and Enzymes of the Nepetalactone Biosynthetic Pathway

In some embodiments, cell-free protein synthesis (CFPS) is carried out to produce/recover an enzyme of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway as described herein (e.g., a NOR) or, in cultures that produce it, nepetalactone. In some embodiments, an upstream product of the nepetalactone biosynthetic pathway is produced/recovered, for example nepetalactol. In some embodiments, a mixture of stereoisomers of nepelatactol and/or nepetalactone is produced or recovered. In some embodiments, a single stereoisomer of nepelatactol and/or nepetalactone is produced or recovered. In some embodiments, cis,trans-nepetalactol is produced and/or recovered. In some embodiments, cis,trans-nepetalactone is produced and/or recovered.

CFPS techniques are well known (see Carlson, E. D., et al. (2012), “Cell-free protein synthesis: applications come of age,” Biotechnol. Adv. 30 (5): 1185-94, which is incorporated by reference herein for its description of CFPS). Common components of a CFPS reaction include a cell extract, an energy source, a supply of amino acids, cofactors such as magnesium, and the DNA with the desired gene. A cell extract can be obtained by lysing the cell of interest and centrifuging to remove the cell walls, genomic DNA, and other cellular debris. The resulting cell extract contains the cellular machinery necessary for protein synthesis, including ribosomes, aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases, translation initiation and elongation factors, nucleases, etc.

Cell extracts in use today are typically made from E. coli (ECE), rabbit reticulocytes (RRL), wheat germ (WGE), and insect cells (ICE). All of these extracts are commercially available. Generally, the energy source and amino acids are added to the extract. Common energy sources are phosphoenol pyruvate, acetyl phosphate, and creatine phosphate.

At least two types of DNA can be used in CFPS: plasmids and linear expression templates (LETs). Plasmids must be propagated inside cells. Multiple copies of LETs can be made much more effectively via nucleic acid amplification (e.g., PCR), which replicates DNA much faster than raising cells in an incubator. While LETs are easier and faster to produce, yields from plasmids are usually much higher in CFPS.

Methods of Oxidizing Nepetalactol to Nepetalactone

The NORs described above are useful for oxidizing nepetalactol to produce nepetalactone. This reaction occurs when a NOR is contacted with nepetalactol in the presence of NAD+ or NADP+. Where the NOR is expressed intracellularly and not secreted, the reaction can take place within the cell (in vivo), provided that the cell contains nepetalactol and NAD+ and/or NADP+ (the cell may contain nepetalactol either because the cell produces nepetalactol or because the cell has taken up nepetalactol from the culture medium). Where the NOR is secreted from a cell, the reaction can be carried out in the culture medium, provided the culture medium contains nepetalactol and NAD+ and/or NADP+. In some embodiments, nepetalactol and NAD+ and/or NADP+ are simply added to the cell lysate for in vitro nepetalactone production, as was done in Example 1. In other embodiments, the NOR is purified from a cell lysate (if intracellular) or cell culture medium (if secreted), using protein purification methods described herein or known in the art. The NOR can, but need not, be purified to homogeneity. The resulting enzyme preparation can then be contacted with nepetalactol and NAD+ or NADP+ to produce nepetalactone in vitro.

In other in vitro production embodiments, a NOR is produced by CFPS and nepetalactol plus NAD+ and/or NADP+ are included in, or added to, the reaction mixture, where oxidation is carried out. In a variation of these embodiments, a NOR is produced by CFPS and partially or fully purified to produce an enzyme preparation that can then be contacted with nepetalactol and NAD+ or NADP+ to produce nepetalactone.

These methods enable industrial-scale production of nepetalactone, which can be used, for example, as or in insect repellents. Insect repellents can, for example, contain nepetalactone at a concentration in the range of about 1% to 30%, 2% to 28%, 3% to 25%, 4% to 23%, 5% to 20%, 6% to 18%, 7% to 15%, 8% to 13%, 9% to 10%, or any range bounded by any of these values. In particular, nepetalactone effectively repels cockroaches and mosquitos. Nepetalactone is the active ingredient in catnip and is therefore also useful as a cat attractant, e.g., in cat toys.

Methods of Converting Nepetalactone to Dihydronepetalactone

Dihydronepetalactone is an even more potent insect repellent than nepetalactone. Accordingly, it is advantageous, in some embodiments, to convert nepetalactone to dihydronepetalactone, which is conveniently accomplished by hydrogenation of nepetalactone. Catalysts such as platinum oxide and palladium supported on strontium carbonate give dihydronepalactone in 24-90% yields (Regnier, F. E., et al. Phytochemistry 6:1281-1289 (1967)). The production of dihydronepetalactone and insect repellents based on this compound is described in European Patent No. 1484967 (also published as PCT Publication No. WO2003079786), which is incorporated by reference herein for this description.

The following examples are given for the purpose of illustrating various embodiments of the disclosure and are not meant to limit the present disclosure in any fashion. Changes therein and other uses which are encompassed within the spirit of the disclosure, as defined by the scope of the claims, will be identifiable to those skilled in the art.

Example 1—Cloning and Expression of Nepetalactone Oxidoreductases in Escherichia coli Capable of Converting Nepetalactol to Nepetalactone Identification of NOR Candidates

Publicly available next-generation RNA sequencing data from Nepeta cataria was obtained from NCBI (SRR5150709). The reads were extracted and assembled into a transcriptome. The protein sequence for horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase (HLADH) was used as a BLAST query to identify alcohol dehydrogenases candidates from Nepeta cataria that might catalyze conversion of nepetalactol to nepetalactone.

Thirty-nine candidates were identified and the coding sequences were codon-optimized for expression in E. coli. The codon-optimized nucleotide sequences were synthesized with an upstream T7 promoter and a ribosome binding site (RBS) and a downstream T7 terminator sequence by Integrated DNA Technologies (IDT). Synthesized DNA was retrieved as plasmids containing the expression cassettes within a backbone containing the kanamycin resistance marker provided by IDT.

Heterologous Expression of NOR Candidates

The plasmids were individually transformed into chemically competent BL21 (DE3) cells. pUC19 was also transformed into BL21 (DE3) to produce a strain that could serve as a negative control. Transformants were selected and grown overnight with shaking in LB medium containing kanamycin. Glycerol stocks were prepared by mixing overnight culture with 50% glycerol in a 1:1 ratio. Glycerol stocks were frozen at −80° C.

BL21 (DE3) strains were streaked out on LB plates containing kanamycin from glycerol stock and grown overnight at 37° C. A single colony was inoculated into 4 mL of LB medium containing kanamycin in 15 mL disposable culture tubes and incubated overnight at 30° C. with shaking at 250 rpm. 500 μL of the overnight culture was subcultured into 50 mL of LB medium containing kanamycin in a 250 mL baffled flask. The culture was grown at 37° C. and the optical density at 600 nm (OD600) was monitored. When OD600 reached between 0.6-1, the cultures were cooled on ice for 15 minutes. The cultures were then induced with 100 μM of isopropyl β-D-1-thiogalactopyranoside and incubated at 15° C. with shaking at 250 rpm for roughly 20 hours. Cultures were pelleted by centrifugation in 50 mL centrifuge tubes. The supernatant was decanted and the pellets were frozen at −20° C. for later processing.

In Vitro Characterization of NOR Candidates

Pellets were thawed on ice and resuspended with 3 mL of cold lysis buffer: 50 mM sodium phosphate, pH=7.4, 100 mM sodium chloride. All remaining steps were performed either on ice or at 4° C. The cell mixture was transferred to a 15 mL centrifuge tube and disrupted with three rounds of sonication using the Branson Sonifier 450 with a double-level microtip at 70% amplitude. A single round of sonication consisted of 6 cycles of 10 seconds with the sonicator on, and 10 seconds off. Between each round, the cell mixture was allowed to sit on ice for a minute to cool. The lysed cell mixture was transferred to 1.7 mL centrifuge tubes and centrifuged at maximum speed in a microcentrifuge for 20 minutes. The supernatant (clarified cell lysate) was collected in a separate tube and used for in vitro characterization.

The in vitro reactions were setup as follows: 2 μL of 100 mM NAD+ or NADP+ and 10 μL of 100 uM nepetalactol was added to 188 μL of the clarified cell lysate. The reactions were incubated at 30° C. shaking at 200 rpm for 2 hours. As a positive control, 2 μL of 100 mM NAD+, 2 μL of 100 mM NADP+ and 10 μL of 100 μM nepetalactone was added to 186 μL of clarified lysate from a strain harboring pUC19 and incubated for 1 hr. The reactions were extracted with one volume of ethyl acetate. The organic layer was withdrawn and analyzed with gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Authentic standards were run to confirm identities of analytes.

The results are shown in FIG. 2. Three candidate genes NcatNOR15 (protein SEQ ID NO: 561), NcatNOR21 (protein SEQ ID NO: 566), and NcatNOR34 (protein SEQ ID NO: 578) [(DNA SEQ ID NOs:1725-1727)] were found to encode NORs which can oxidize nepetalactol to nepetalactone, the first such demonstration.

Example 2—Introduction of Biosynthetic Pathway for Nepetalactone into Yeast Plasmid/DNA Design

All plasmids were designed using proprietary software. Genes were synthesized by a third-party and plasmids were assembled by standard DNA assembly methods either in-house or by a third-party. The plasmid DNA was then used to chromosomally integrate the metabolic pathway inserts into Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Plasmids were designed for ‘two plasmid, split-marker’ integrations. Briefly, two plasmids were constructed for each targeted genomic integration. The first plasmid contains an insert made up of the following DNA parts listed from 5′ to 3′: 1) a 5′ homology arm to direct genomic integration; 2) a payload consisting of cassettes for heterologous gene expression; 3) the 5′ half of a URA3 selection marker cassette. The second plasmid contains an insert made up of the following DNA parts listed from 5′ to 3′: 1) the 3′ half of a URA3 selection marker cassette with 100 bp or more DNA overlap to the 3′ end of the 5′ half of the URA selection marker cassette used in the first plasmid; 2) an optional payload consisting of cassettes for heterologous gene expression; 3) a 3′ homology arm to direct genomic integration. The inserts of both plasmids are flanked by meganuclease sites. Upon digestion of the plasmids using the appropriate meganucleases, inserts are released and transformed into cells as linear fragments. A triple-crossover event allows integration of the desired heterologous genes and reconstitution of the full URA3 marker allowing selection for uracil prototrophy. For recycling of the URA3 marker, the URA3 cassette is flanked by 100-200 bp direct repeats, allowing for loop-out and counter-selection with 5-Fluoroorotic Acid (5-FOA).

Cassettes for heterologous expression contain the gene coding sequence under the transcriptional control of a promoter and terminator. Promoters and terminators may be selected from any elements native to S. cerevisiae. Promoters may be constitutive or inducible. Inducible promoters include the bi-directional pGAL1/pGAL10 (pGAL1-10) promoter and pGAL7 promoter, which are induced by galactose.

Strain Construction

Cells were grown in yeast extract peptone dextrose (YPD) overnight at 30° C., shaking at 250 rpm. The cells were diluted to an optical density at 600 nm (OD600)=0.2 in 50 mL of YPD and grown to an OD600=0.6-0.8. Cells were harvested by centrifugation, washed with water, washed with 100 mM lithium acetate, and resuspended in 100 mM lithium acetate to a final OD600=100. 15 μL of the cell resuspension was directly added to the DNA. A PEG mixture containing 100 μL of 50% w/v PEG3350, 4 μL of 10 mg/mL salmon sperm DNA, 15 μL of 1 M lithium acetate was added to the DNA and cell mixture, and well-mixed. The transformation mix was incubated at 30° C. for 30 min and 42° C. for 45 min.

Following heat-shock, the transformation mix was plated on agar plates containing synthetic defined minimal yeast media lacking uracil (SD-URA). Plates were incubated at 30° C. for 2-3 days. Up to eight transformants were picked for each targeted strain into 1 mL of SD-URA liquid media of a 96-well plate and grown at 30° C. with shaking at 1000 rpm and 90% relative humidity (RH). Cultures were lysed using Zymolyase, and a PCR was performed using the resulting lysate to verify successful integration using primers that targeted the 5′ integration junction. Glycerol stocks were prepared from the cultures at a final concentration of 16.6% glycerol and were stored at −80° C. for later use.

To recycle the URA3 selection marker, selected strains were inoculated into SD-URA and grown overnight at 30° C., 1000 rpm and 90% RH. Strains were then plated onto 0.1% 5-FOA plates (Teknova) and incubated at 30° C. for 2-3 days. Single colonies were re-streaked onto 0.1% 5-FOA plates. Single colonies were selected from the re-streak and colony PCR was performed in order verify loop-out of the URA3 marker. Colonies were also tested for lack of growth in liquid SD-URA medium. Further integrations were performed as described above.

Strain Cultivation and Target Compound Production

From the frozen glycerol stocks, successful integrants were inoculated into a seed plate containing 300 μL of SD-URA. The 96-well plate was incubated at 30° C., 1000 rpm, 90% RH for 48 hours. For each successfully built strain, three biological replicates were tested. If fewer than three successful transformants were obtained for each targeted strain genotype, the existing biological replicates were duplicated. Strains were randomized across a 96-well plate. After the 48 hours of growth, 8 μL of the cultures from the seed plates were used to inoculate a main cultivation plate containing 250 μL of minimal medium with 2% glucose and grown for 16 hour at 30° C., 1000 rpm, 90% RH. 50 μL of minimal medium with 12% galactose was added to the cultures to induce expression of heterologous genes under the control of galactose promoters, followed by the addition of 30 μL of methyl oleate. After 9 hours of additional growth, 3 μL of a 50 mg/mL substrate feed (geraniol or 8-hydroxygeraniol) prepared in DMSO was dispensed into the cultures. Cells were grown for an additional 15 hours before assays were performed to assess cell growth and titer.

Cell density was determined using a spectrophotometer by measuring the absorbance of each well at 600 nm. 20 μL of culture was diluted into 180 μL of 175 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0 in a clear-bottom plate. The plates were shaken for 25 s at 750 rpm immediately before being measured on a Tecan M1000 spectrophotometer. A non-inoculated control well was included as a blank.

300 μL of ethyl acetate was added to the cultures. The plates were sealed with a PlateLoc Thermal Microplate Sealer and the plates were shaken for one min at 750 rpm. The plates were centrifuged and the ethyl acetate layer was collected and analyzed by liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Target analytes were quantified against authentic standards.

FIG. 6-A displays the nepetalactone and nepetalactol titers of several engineered strains compared to non-inoculated control wells and the wild-type strain, CEN.PK113-7D. FIG. 6-B displays the strain genotypes. FIG. 6-C displays the source organism of the pathway genes. All engineered strains in FIG. 6-A produced nepetalactone and nepetalactol with an 8-hydroxygeraniol feed with maximum titers of 66.7 mg/L nepetalactone and 44.4 mg/L nepetalactol. Under identical conditions, no nepetalactone and nepetalactol was observed in the non-inoculated control wells and the wild-type strain. Only some of the engineered strains produced the same products with a geraniol substrate feed; generally, the titers were lower with a geraniol substrate feed with maximum titers of 6.1 mg/L nepetalactone and 10.6 mg/L nepetalactol. With the geraniol substrate feed, no nepetalactone and nepetalactol was observed in wells that were non-inoculated or that contained the wild-type strain. Only the cis,trans-nepetalactone isomer was produced.

Example 3—Expression and Activities of Various Iridoid Synthases

A variety of iridoid synthases (ISYs, SEQ ID NOs: 1181, 1256, 1257, 1306, 1191, 1255, 1269, 1203, 1791, 1801, 1215, 1281, 1190, 1217, 1800, 1234, 1277, 1233, 1300, 1249, 1805) were heterologously expressed in E. coli from a plasmid using a T7 expression system. E. coli cultures were grown until OD600˜0.6 and induced with 1 mM IPTG and grown for 7.5 h at 28° C. or 20 h at 15° C. Cells were harvested and chemically lysed by Bugbuster HT (EMD Millipore) following manufacturer's instructions. Cell lysates were clarified by centrifugation and were tested for in vitro conversion of 8-oxogeranial to nepetalactol in the presence of NADH and NADPH (see FIG. 3). 2 μL of cell lysate was added to a reaction mixture containing 200 mM HEPES, pH=7.3, 100 μM of 8-oxogeranial, 100 μM NADH and 100 μM of NADPH. The reaction mixture was extracted with 300 μL of ethyl acetate. The organic extract was analyzed by LC-MS for quantification of nepetalactol.

Example 4—Cloning and Expression of Nepetalactol Synthases Capable of Producing Nepetalactol

Four putative nepetalactol synthases (NEPS_1 to NEPS_4; SEQ ID NO: 1518-1521) were identified by examining publicly available transcriptome data (medicinalplantgenomics.msu.edu) from four plant species that are known to produce monoterpene indole alkaloids (Catharanthus roseus, Camptotheca acuminata, Vinca minor, and Rauvolfia serpentina). Transcripts that encoded these NEPS were highly co-expressed with biosynthetic gene homologs that catalyze the formation of loganic acid from geraniol, which proceeds through the intermediate, nepetalactol. This analysis suggested the involvement of these NEPS candidates in the biosynthesis of loganic acid from geraniol, perhaps in nepetalactol formation. All four NEPSs were heterologously expressed in E. coli from a plasmid using a T7 expression system. E. coli cultures were grown until OD600˜0.6 and induced with 100 μM IPTG and grown for 16 h at 16° C. Cells were harvested and chemically lysed by Bugbuster HT (EMD Millipore) following manufacturer's instructions. Cell lysates were clarified by centrifugation. NEPS activity was tested individually by the addition of 10 μL of cell lysate to a reaction mixture containing 50 mM HEPES, pH=7.3, 500 μM of 8-oxogeranial, 1 mM NADPH and 10 μL of cell lysate that contains one of three iridoid synthases (ISY) in a final volume of 200 μL. The ISYs include Catharanthus roseus iridoid synthase (ISY; SEQ ID NO. 1162), C. roseus ISY “del22” (SEQ ID NO. 1166), which is truncated at the N-terminus by 22 amino acids, and Nepeta mussinii ISY (SEQ ID NO. 1159) (see FIG. 4). The reaction mixture was extracted with 300 μL of ethyl acetate, and the organic layer was analyzed by LC-MS for the quantification of nepetalactol. In every case, the presence of the NEPS enhanced production of nepetalactol (11- to 40-fold increase) compared to in vitro reactions that contained cell lysate from E. coli that did not express NEPS.

Example 5—Expression and Activities of Various 8-Hydroxygeraniol Oxidoreductases

A variety of 8-hydroxygeraniol oxidoreductases (8HGOs; SEQ ID NO: 1132, 1134, 1136, 1138-1146) were heterologously expressed in E. coli from a plasmid using a T7 expression system. E. coli cultures were grown until OD600˜0.6 and induced with 100 μM IPTG and grown for 16 h at 16° C. Cells were harvested and chemically lysed by Bugbuster HT (EMD Millipore) following manufacturer's instructions. Cell lysates were clarified by centrifugation. 8HGO activity was tested by the addition of 14 of cell lysate to a reaction mixture containing 50 mM of bis-tris propane, pH=9.0, 1 mM NADPH, 1 mM NAD+, 500 μM of 8-hydroxygeraniol, 14 of cell lysate containing Nepeta mussinii ISY (SEQ ID NO: 1159) and 1 μL of cell lysate containing NEPS 1 (SEQ ID NO: 1518) in a final reaction volume of 100 μL. The reaction mixture was extracted with 300 μL of ethyl acetate, and the organic layer was analyzed by LC-MS for quantification of nepetalactol. (see FIG. 5).

Example 6—Cloning and Expression of Nepetalactone Oxidoreductases in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Capable of Converting Nepetalactol to Nepetalactone

Identification of NOR Candidates

An additional list of seventeen candidates were identified from the de novo transcriptome assembly produced above in EXAMPLE 1. Briefly, hmmscan from the software, HMMER was used to functionally annotate all predicted peptides from the assembly based on their best matching Pfam hidden markov model (HMM) by E-value. All HMMs related to oxidoreductase activity were investigated further by BLAST and filtered to remove sequences with high sequence identity to any sequences from the non-redundant database to further narrow the list of candidates. The sequences of these candidates and the original thirty-nine candidates described in EXAMPLE 1 were codon-optimized for expression in S. cerevisiae (SEQ ID NO: 1340-1395) and were synthesized by a third-party and cloned into the 2μ plasmid backbone, pESC-URA.

Heterologous Expression and Testing of NOR Candidates

The plasmids were individually transformed into chemically competent Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells as described in EXAMPLE 2. Transformants were selected on SD-URA agar plates. Three to four replicates were picked into SD-URA liquid medium and cultured at 30° C. for one to two days with shaking at 1000 rpm. Cultures were glycerol stocked at a final concentration of 16.6% glycerol and stored at −80° C. until later use.

10 μL of the glycerol stocked strains was inoculated into 300 μL of minimal media lacking uracil, and containing 4% glucose in 96-well plates to produce seed cultures. The plates were incubated at 30° C. at 1000 rpm for 1-2 days. 10 μL of the seed cultures was then inoculated into 300 μL of minimal media lacking uracil, and containing 2% galactose and 100 mg/L of nepetalactol. 30 μL of methyl oleate was next added to the wells. The main culture plates were further incubated at 30° C., 1000 rpm for 24 hours before assays were performed to assess cell growth and titer. Cell growth and titer assays were performed as described above in EXAMPLE 2.

All tested strains produced at least some basal level of nepetalactone (˜600 ug/L; see FIG. 7), including a control strain that did not contain a plasmid for expression of a NOR candidate. No nepetalactone was observed in the non-inoculated control wells. Altogether, these results suggest that Saccharomyces cerevisiae has low background levels of NOR activity. One of the tested strains expressing GAR_NOR15 (SEQ ID NO: 1393) produced significantly more nepetalactone (93 mg/L), far exceeding basal levels, and demonstrating that this heterologous protein candidate has activity for converting nepetalactol into nepetalactone.

REFERENCES

-   1. U.S. Pat. No. 8,512,988B2, entitled “Microbial engineering for     the production of chemical and pharmaceutical products from the     isoprenoid pathway,” filed Nov. 10, 2010, published Aug. 20, 2013. -   2. U.S. Pat. No. 8,206,957B2, entitled “Process for the enzymatic     preparation of citronellal,” filed Jun. 27, 2008, published Jun. 26,     2012. -   3. WO2015189428A1, entitled “Method of producing terpenes or     terpenoids,” filed Jun. 15, 2015, published Dec. 17, 2015. -   4. WO2016008883A1, entitled “Biosynthesis of monoterpenes in     cyanobacteria,” filed Jul. 14, 2015, published Jan. 21, 2016. -   5. Hallahan, et al. (1998) “Nepetalactol oxidoreductase in trichomes     of the catmint Nepeta racemose,” Phytochemistry 48(3): 421-427. -   6. Dewick (2002) “The biosynthesis of C5-C25 terpenoid compounds,”     Nat Prod Rep. 19(2):181-222. -   7. Campell, et al. (2016) “Engineering of a Nepetalactol-Producing     Platform Strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the Production of     Plant Seco-Iridoids,” ACS Synth Biol. 5(5):405-14. -   8. Krithika, et al. (2015) “Characterization of 10-hydroxygeraniol     dehydrogenase from Catharanthus roseus reveals cascaded enzymatic     activity in iridoid biosynthesis,” Sci Rep. 5:8258. -   9. Lichman, et al. (2018) “Uncoupled activation and cyclisation in     catmint reductive terpenoid biosynthesis,” bioRxiv doi:     doi.org/10.1101/391953 (Posted Aug. 14, 2018). 

What is claimed is:
 1. An engineered microbial cell, wherein the engineered microbial cell is capable of producing nepetalactone, wherein said engineered microbial cell expresses an active nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) having at least 85% sequence identity to one or more of SEQ ID Nos:524-529, 531-533 and 777-782.
 2. The engineered microbial cell of claim 1, wherein the engineered microbial cell further expresses a non-native polypeptide having an activity selected from the group consisting of a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYBS) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (BHGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); cytochrome BS reductase (CYBS5R); and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), or any combination thereof.
 3. The engineered microbial cell of claim 2, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses non-native polypeptide(s) having an activity comprising said nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) and a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).
 4. The engineered microbial cell of claim 1, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses non-native polypeptide(s) having an activity comprising an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO), an iridoid synthase (ISY), said nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR), and a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).
 5. The engineered microbial cell of claim 1, wherein the microbial cell includes a fungal cell.
 6. The engineered microbial cell of claim 5, wherein the fungal cell is a yeast cell of the genus Saccharomyces and of the species cerevisiae.
 7. The engineered microbial cell of claim 1, wherein, when cultured, the engineered microbial cell produces nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium.
 8. The engineered microbial cell of claim 1, wherein the wherein the NOR has more than 90% sequence identity to one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 524-529, 531-533 and 777-782.
 9. The engineered microbial cell of claim 1, wherein the NOR has more than 95%, sequence identity to one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 524-529, 531-533 and 777-782.
 10. The engineered microbial cell of claim 1, wherein the NOR comprises one or more amino acid sequences selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOs: 524-529, 531-533 and 777-782.
 11. The engineered microbial cell of claim 8, wherein the engineered microbial cell further expresses a non-native polypeptide having an activity selected from the group consisting of a geraniol diphosphate synthase (GPPS); a geranyl diphosphate diphosphatase (geraniol synthase, GES); a geraniol 8-hydroxylase (G8H); a cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; a cytochrome B5 (CYBS) capable of promoting regeneration of the redox state of the G8H; an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO); an iridoid synthase (ISY); cytochrome BS5 reductase (CYB5R), and nepetalactol synthase (NEPS), or any combination thereof.
 12. The engineered microbial cell of claim 11, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses non-native polypeptide(s) having an activity comprising said nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR) and a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).
 13. The engineered microbial cell of claim 8, wherein the engineered microbial cell expresses non-native polypeptide(s) having an activity comprising an 8-hydroxygeraniol dehydrogenase (8HGO), an iridoid synthase (ISY), said nepetalactol oxidoreductase (NOR), and a nepetalactol synthase (NEPS).
 14. The engineered microbial cell of claim 8, wherein the microbial cell includes a fungal cell.
 15. The engineered microbial cell of claim 14, wherein the fungal cell is a yeast cell of the genus Saccharomyces and of the species cerevisiae.
 16. The engineered microbial cell of claim 8, wherein, when cultured, the engineered microbial cell produces nepetalactone at a level greater than 10 μM of cell lysate or culture medium. 